非人类灵长类出版物中的EyeLink眼动仪

@article{Romero2022,

title = {Neural effects of continuous theta-burst stimulation in macaque parietal neurons},

author = {Maria C. Romero and Lara Merken and Peter Janssen and Marco Davare},

doi = {10.7554/ELIFE.65536},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {11},

pages = {1–19},

abstract = {Theta-burst transcranial magnetic stimulation (TBS) has become a standard non-invasive technique to induce offline changes in cortical excitability in human volunteers. Yet, TBS suffers from a high variability across subjects. A better knowledge about how TBS affects neural activity in vivo could uncover its mechanisms of action and ultimately allow its mainstream use in basic science and clinical applications. To address this issue, we applied continuous TBS (cTBS, 300 pulses) in awake behaving rhesus monkeys and quantified its after-effects on neuronal activity. Overall, we observed a pronounced, long-lasting, and highly reproducible reduction in neuronal excitability after cTBS in individual parietal neurons, with some neurons also exhibiting periods of hyperexcitability during the recovery phase. These results provide the first experimental evidence of the effects of cTBS on single neurons in awake behaving monkeys, shedding new light on the reasons underlying cTBS variability.},

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}

@article{Sajad2022,

title = {Functional architecture of executive control and associated event-related potentials in macaques},

author = {Amirsaman Sajad and Steven P. Errington and Jeffrey D. Schall},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-022-33942-1},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {13},

number = {1},

pages = {1–19},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {The medial frontal cortex (MFC) enables executive control by monitoring relevant information and using it to adapt behavior. In macaques performing a saccade countermanding (stop-signal) task, we simultaneously recorded electrical potentials over MFC and neural spiking across all layers of the supplementary eye field (SEF). We report the laminar organization of neurons enabling executive control by monitoring the conflict between incompatible responses, the timing of events, and sustaining goal maintenance. These neurons were a mix of narrow-spiking and broad-spiking found in all layers, but those predicting the duration of control and sustaining the task goal until the release of operant control were more commonly narrow-spiking neurons confined to layers 2 and 3 (L2/3). We complement these results with evidence for a monkey homolog of the N2/P3 event-related potential (ERP) complex associated with response inhibition. N2 polarization varied with error-likelihood and P3 polarization varied with the duration of expected control. The amplitude of the N2 and P3 were predicted by the spike rate of different classes of neurons located in L2/3 but not L5/6. These findings reveal features of the cortical microcircuitry supporting executive control and producing associated ERPs.},

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@article{SedaghatNejad2022,

title = {Synchronous spiking of cerebellar Purkinje cells during control of movements},

author = {Ehsan Sedaghat-Nejad and Jay S. Pi and Paul Hage and Mohammad Amin Fakharian and Reza Shadmehr},

doi = {10.1073/pnas.2118954119},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},

volume = {119},

number = {14},

pages = {1–11},

abstract = {The ability of the brain to accurately control a movement depends on the cerebellum. Yet, how the cerebellar neurons encode information relevant for this control remains poorly understood. The computations that are performed in the cerebellar cortex are transmitted to its nuclei via Purkinje cells (P cells), which are inhibitory neurons. How- ever, if the spiking activity within P cell populations were temporally synchronized, that inhibition would entrain nucleus neurons, making them fire. Do P cells transmit information by synchronously timing their spikes? We simultaneously recorded from multiple P cells while marmosets performed saccadic eye movements, and organized the neurons into populations that shared a complex spike response to error. Before move- ment onset, this population ofP cells increased their simple spike activity with a magni- tude that depended on the velocity of the upcoming saccade, and then sharply reduced their activity below baseline at saccade onset. During deceleration, the spikes became temporally aligned within the population. Thus, the P cells relied on disinhibition, combined with spike synchronization, to convey to the nucleus when to decelerate and potentially stop the movement.},

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@article{Seideman2022,

title = {A conflict between spatial selection and evidence accumulation in area LIP},

author = {Joshua A. Seideman and Terrence R. Stanford and Emilio Salinas},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-022-32209-z},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {13},

number = {1},

pages = {1–11},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {The lateral intraparietal area (LIP) contains spatially selective neurons that help guide eye movements and, according to numerous studies, do so by accumulating sensory evidence in favor of one choice (e.g., look left) or another (look right). To examine this functional link, we trained two monkeys on an urgent motion discrimination task, a task with which the evolution of both the recorded neuronal activity and the subject's choice can be tracked millisecond by millisecond. We found that while choice accuracy increased steeply with increasing sensory evidence, at the same time, the LIP selection signal became progressively weaker, as if it hindered performance. This effect was consistent with the transient deployment of spatial attention to disparate locations away from the relevant sensory cue. The results demonstrate that spatial selection in LIP is dissociable from, and may even conflict with, evidence accumulation during informed saccadic choices.},

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@article{Semedo2022,

title = {Feedforward and feedback interactions between visual cortical areas use different population activity patterns},

author = {João D. Semedo and Anna I. Jasper and Amin Zandvakili and Aravind Krishna and Amir Aschner and Christian K. Machens and Adam Kohn and Byron M. Yu},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-022-28552-w},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {13},

number = {1},

pages = {1–14},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Brain function relies on the coordination of activity across multiple, recurrently connected brain areas. For instance, sensory information encoded in early sensory areas is relayed to, and further processed by, higher cortical areas and then fed back. However, the way in which feedforward and feedback signaling interact with one another is incompletely understood. Here we investigate this question by leveraging simultaneous neuronal population recordings in early and midlevel visual areas (V1–V2 and V1–V4). Using a dimensionality reduction approach, we find that population interactions are feedforward-dominated shortly after stimulus onset and feedback-dominated during spontaneous activity. The population activity patterns most correlated across areas were distinct during feedforward- and feedback-dominated periods. These results suggest that feedforward and feedback signaling rely on separate “channels”, which allows feedback signals to not directly affect activity that is fed forward.},

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pubstate = {published},

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}

@article{Shi2022a,

title = {Neuronal origins of reduced accuracy and biases in economic choices under sequential offers},

author = {Weikang Shi and Sebastien Ballesta and Camillo Padoa-Schioppa},

doi = {10.7554/eLife.75910},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {11},

pages = {1–26},

abstract = {Economic choices are characterized by a variety of biases. Understanding their origins is a long-term goal for neuroeconomics, but progress on this front has been limited. Here, we examined choice biases observed when two goods are offered sequentially. In the experiments, rhesus monkeys chose between different juices offered simultaneously or in sequence. Choices under sequential offers were less accurate (higher variability). They were also biased in favor of the second offer (order bias) and in favor of the preferred juice (preference bias). Analysis of neuronal activity recorded in the orbitofrontal cortex revealed that these phenomena emerged at different computational stages. Lower choice accuracy reflected weaker offer value signals (valuation stage), the order bias emerged during value comparison (decision stage), and the preference bias emerged late in the trial (post-comparison). By neuronal measures, each phenomenon reduced the value obtained on average in each trial and was thus costly to the monkey.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Shi2022,

title = {Economic choices under simultaneous or sequential offers rely on the same neural circuit},

author = {Weikang Shi and Sébastien Ballesta and Camillo Padoa-Schioppa},

doi = {10.1523/jneurosci.1265-21.2021},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neuroscience},

volume = {42},

number = {1},

pages = {33–43},

publisher = {Society for Neuroscience},

abstract = {A series of studies in which monkeys chose between two juices offered in variable amounts identified in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) different groups of neurons encoding the value of individual options ( offer value ), the binary choice outcome ( chosen juice ) and the chosen value . These variables capture both the input and the output of the choice process, suggesting that the cell groups identified in OFC constitute the building blocks of a decision circuit. Several lines of evidence support this hypothesis. However, in previous experiments offers were presented simultaneously, raising the question of whether current notions generalize to when goods are presented or are examined in sequence. Recently, [Ballesta and Padoa-Schioppa (2019)][1] examined OFC activity under sequential offers. An analysis of neuronal responses across time windows revealed that a small number of cell groups encoded specific sequences of variables. These sequences appeared analogous to the variables identified under simultaneous offers, but the correspondence remained tentative. Thus in the present study we examined the relation between cell groups found under sequential versus simultaneous offers. We recorded from the OFC while monkeys chose between different juices. Trials with simultaneous and sequential offers were randomly interleaved in each session. We classified cells in each choice modality and we examined the relation between the two classifications. We found a strong correspondence – in other words, the cell groups measured under simultaneous offers and under sequential offers were one and the same. This result indicates that economic choices under simultaneous or sequential offers rely on the same neural circuit. Significance Statement Research in the past 20 years has shed light on the neuronal underpinnings of economic choices. A large number of results indicates that decisions between goods are formed in a neural circuit within the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). In most previous studies, subjects chose between two goods offered simultaneously. Yet, in daily situations, goods available for choice are often presented or examined in sequence. Here we recorded neuronal activity in the primate OFC alternating trials under simultaneous and under sequential offers. Our analyses demonstrate that the same neural circuit supports choices in the two modalities. Hence current notions on the neuronal mechanisms underlying economic decisions generalize to choices under sequential offers. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.},

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tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Uran2022,

title = {Predictive coding of natural images by V1 firing rates and rhythmic synchronization},

author = {Cem Uran and Alina Peter and Andreea Lazar and William Barnes and Johanna Klon-Lipok and Katharine A. Shapcott and Rasmus Roese and Pascal Fries and Wolf Singer and Martin Vinck},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2022.01.002},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {110},

number = {7},

pages = {1240–1257},

publisher = {Elsevier},

abstract = {Predictive coding is an important candidate theory of self-supervised learning in the brain. Its central idea is that sensory responses result from comparisons between bottom-up inputs and contextual predictions, a process in which rates and synchronization may play distinct roles. We recorded from awake macaque V1 and developed a technique to quantify stimulus predictability for natural images based on self-supervised, generative neural networks. We find that neuronal firing rates were mainly modulated by the contextual predictability of higher-order image features, which correlated strongly with human perceptual similarity judgments. By contrast, V1 gamma (γ)-synchronization increased monotonically with the contextual predictability of low-level image features and emerged exclusively for larger stimuli. Consequently, γ-synchronization was induced by natural images that are highly compressible and low-dimensional. Natural stimuli with low predictability induced prominent, late-onset beta (β)-synchronization, likely reflecting cortical feedback. Our findings reveal distinct roles of synchronization and firing rates in the predictive coding of natural images.},

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pubstate = {published},

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}

@article{Balewski2022,

title = {Fast and slow contributions to decision-making in corticostriatal circuits},

author = {Zuzanna Z. Balewski and Eric B. Knudsen and Joni D. Wallis},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2022.04.005},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {110},

number = {13},

pages = {2170–2182},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {We make complex decisions using both fast judgments and slower, more deliberative reasoning. For example, during value-based decision-making, animals make rapid value-guided orienting eye movements after stimulus presentation that bias the upcoming decision. The neural mechanisms underlying these processes remain unclear. To address this, we recorded from the caudate nucleus and orbitofrontal cortex while animals made value-guided decisions. Using population-level decoding, we found a rapid, phasic signal in caudate that predicted the choice response and closely aligned with animals' initial orienting eye movements. In contrast, the dynamics in orbitofrontal cortex were more consistent with a deliberative system serially representing the value of each available option. The phasic caudate value signal and the deliberative orbitofrontal value signal were largely independent from each other, consistent with value-guided orienting and value-guided decision-making being independent processes.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Burk2022,

title = {Neurons in inferior temporal cortex are sensitive to motion trajectory during degraded object recognition},

author = {Diana C. Burk and David L. Sheinberg},

doi = {10.1093/texcom/tgac034},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {Cerebral Cortex Communications},

volume = {3},

number = {3},

pages = {1–18},

abstract = {Our brains continuously acquire sensory information and make judgments even when visual information is limited. In some circumstances, an ambiguous object can be recognized from how it moves, such as an animal hopping or a plane flying overhead. Yet it remains unclear how movement is processed by brain areas involved in visual object recognition. Here we investigate whether inferior temporal (IT) cortex, an area known for its relevance in visual form processing, has access to motion information during recognition. We developed a matching task that required monkeys to recognize moving shapes with variable levels of shape degradation. Neural recordings in area IT showed that, surprisingly, some IT neurons responded stronger to degraded shapes than clear ones. Furthermore, neurons exhibited motion sensitivity at different times during the presentation of the blurry target. Population decoding analyses showed that motion patterns could be decoded from IT neuron pseudo-populations. Contrary to previous findings, these results suggest that neurons in IT can integrate visual motion and shape information, particularly when shape information is degraded, in a way that has been previously overlooked. Our results highlight the importance of using challenging multifeature recognition tasks to understand the role of area IT in naturalistic visual object recognition.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Caprara2022,

title = {Effect of viewing distance on object responses in macaque areas 45B, F5a and F5p},

author = {I. Caprara and P. Janssen},

doi = {10.1038/s41598-022-18482-4},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {Scientific Reports},

volume = {12},

number = {1},

pages = {1–13},

publisher = {Nature Publishing Group UK},

abstract = {To perform tasks like grasping, the brain has to process visual object information so that the grip aperture can be adjusted before touching the object. Previous studies have demonstrated that the posterior subsector of the Anterior Intraparietal area is connected to area 45B, and its anterior counterpart to F5a. However, the role of area 45B and F5a in visually-guided grasping is poorly understood. Here, we investigated the role of area 45B, F5a and F5p in object processing during visually-guided grasping in two monkeys. We tested whether the presentation of an object in near peripersonal space activated F5p neurons more than objects with the same retinal size presented beyond reachable distance and conversely, whether neurons in 45B and F5a—which may encode a purely visual object representation—were less affected by viewing distance when equalizing retinal size. Contrary to our expectations, we found that most neurons in area 45B were object- and viewing distance-selective, and preferred mostly Near presentations. Area F5a showed much weaker object selectivity compared to 45B, with a similar preference for objects presented at the Near position. Finally, F5p neurons were less object selective and frequently Far-preferring. In sum, area 45B—but not F5p– prefers objects presented in peripersonal space.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Chen2022e,

title = {Similar neural and perceptual masking effects of low-power optogenetic stimulation in primate V1},

author = {Spencer Chin-Yu Chen and Giacomo Benvenuti and Yuzhi Chen and Satwant Kumar and Charu Ramakrishnan and Karl Deisseroth and Wilson S. Geisler and Eyal Seidemann},

doi = {10.7554/eLife.68393},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {11},

pages = {1–21},

abstract = {Can direct stimulation of primate V1 substitute for a visual stimulus and mimic its perceptual effect? To address this question, we developed an optical-genetic toolkit to ‘read' neural population responses using widefield calcium imaging, while simultaneously using optogenetics to ‘write' neural responses into V1 of behaving macaques. We focused on the phenomenon of visual masking, where detection of a dim target is significantly reduced by a co-localized medium-brightness mask (Cornsweet and Pinsker, 1965; Whittle and Swanston, 1974). Using our toolkit, we tested whether V1 optogenetic stimulation can recapitulate the perceptual masking effect of a visual mask. We find that, similar to a visual mask, low-power optostimulation can significantly reduce visual detection sensitivity, that a sublinear interaction between visual-and optogenetic-evoked V1 responses could account for this perceptual effect, and that these neural and behavioral effects are spatially selective. Our toolkit and results open the door for further exploration of perceptual substitutions by direct stimulation of sensory cortex.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Adams2021,

title = {Neurons in primate prefrontal cortex signal valuable social information during natural viewing},

author = {Geoffrey K. Adams and Wei Song Ong and John M. Pearson and Karli K. Watson and Michael L. Platt},

doi = {10.1098/rstb.2019.0666},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences},

volume = {376},

pages = {1–16},

abstract = {Information about social partners is innately valuable to primates. Decisions about which sources of information to consume are highly naturalistic but also complex and place unusually strong demands on the brain's decision network. In particular, both the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) play key roles in decision making and social behaviour, suggesting a likely role in social information-seeking as well. To test this idea, we developed a 'channel surfing' task in which monkeys were shown a series of 5 s video clips of conspecifics engaged in natural behaviours at a field site. Videos were annotated frame-by-frame using an ethogram of species-typical behaviours, an important source of social information. Between each clip, monkeys were presented with a choice between targets that determined which clip would be seen next. Monkeys' gaze during playback indicated differential engagement depending on what behaviours were presented. Neurons in both OFC and LPFC responded to choice targets and to video, and discriminated a subset of the behaviours in the ethogram during video viewing. These findings suggest that both OFC and LPFC are engaged in processing social information that is used to guide dynamic information-seeking decisions. This article is part of the theme issue 'Existence and prevalence of economic behaviours among non-human primates'.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Akbarian2021,

title = {A sensory memory to preserve visual representations across eye movements},

author = {Amir Akbarian and Kelsey Clark and Behrad Noudoost and Neda Nategh},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-021-26756-0},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {12},

pages = {6449},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Saccadic eye movements (saccades) disrupt the continuous flow of visual information, yet our perception of the visual world remains uninterrupted. Here we assess the representation of the visual scene across saccades from single-trial spike trains of extrastriate visual areas, using a combined electrophysiology and statistical modeling approach. Using a model-based decoder we generate a high temporal resolution readout of visual information, and identify the specific changes in neurons' spatiotemporal sensitivity that underly an integrated perisaccadic representation of visual space. Our results show that by maintaining a memory of the visual scene, extrastriate neurons produce an uninterrupted representation of the visual world. Extrastriate neurons exhibit a late response enhancement close to the time of saccade onset, which preserves the latest pre-saccadic information until the post-saccadic flow of retinal information resumes. These results show how our brain exploits available information to maintain a representation of the scene while visual inputs are disrupted.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Andrei2021,

title = {Heterogeneous side effects of cortical inactivation in behaving animals},

author = {Ariana R. Andrei and Samantha Debes and Mircea Chelaru and Xiaoqin Liu and Elsa Rodarte and John L. Spudich and Roger Janz and Valentin Dragoi},

doi = {10.7554/eLife.66400},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {10},

pages = {e66400},

abstract = {Cortical inactivation represents a key causal manipulation allowing the study of cortical circuits and their impact on behavior. A key assumption in inactivation studies is that the neurons in the target area become silent while the surrounding cortical tissue is only negligibly impacted. However, individual neurons are embedded in complex local circuits composed of excitatory and inhibitory cells with connections extending hundreds of microns. This raises the possibility that silencing one part of the network could induce complex, unpredictable activity changes in neurons outside the targeted inactivation zone. These off-target side effects can potentially complicate inter-pretations of inactivation manipulations, especially when they are related to changes in behavior. Here, we demonstrate that optogenetic inactivation of glutamatergic neurons in the superficial layers of monkey primary visual cortex (V1) induces robust suppression at the light-targeted site, but destabilizes stimulus responses in the neighboring, untargeted network. We identified four types of stimulus-evoked neuronal responses within a cortical column, ranging from full suppression to facil-itation, and a mixture of both. Mixed responses were most prominent in middle and deep cortical layers. These results demonstrate that response modulation driven by lateral network connectivity is diversely implemented throughout a cortical column. Importantly, consistent behavioral changes induced by optogenetic inactivation were only achieved when cumulative network activity was homogeneously suppressed. Therefore, careful consideration of the full range of network changes outside the inactivated cortical region is required, as heterogeneous side effects can confound inter-pretation of inactivation experiments.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Basile2021,

title = {Autonomic arousal tracks outcome salience not valence in monkeys making social decisions},

author = {Benjamin M. Basile and Jessica A. Joiner and Olga Dal Monte and Nicholas A. Fagan and Chloe L. Karaskiewicz and Daniel R. Lucas and Steve W. C. Chang and Elisabeth A. Murray},

doi = {10.1037/bne0000424},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Behavioral Neuroscience},

volume = {135},

number = {3},

pages = {443–452},

abstract = {The evolutionary and neural underpinnings of human prosociality are still being identified. A growing body of evidence suggests that some species find the sight of another individual receiving a reward reinforcing, called vicarious reinforcement, and that this capacity is supported by a network of brain areas including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the amygdala. At the same time, analyses of autonomic arousal have been increasingly used to contextualize and guide neural research, especially for studies of reward processing. Here, we characterized the autonomic pupil response of eight monkeys across two laboratories in two different versions of a vicarious reinforcement paradigm. Monkeys were cued as to whether an upcoming reward would be delivered to them, another monkey, or nobody and could accept or decline the offer. As expected, all monkeys in both laboratories showed a marked preference for juice to the self, together with a reliable prosocial preference for juice to a social partner compared to juice to nobody. However, contrary to our expectations, we found that pupils were widest in anticipation of juice to the self, moderately sized in anticipation of juice to nobody, and narrowest in anticipation of juice to a social partner. This effect was seen across both laboratories and regardless of specific task parameters. The seemingly paradoxical pupil effect can be explained by a model in which pupil size tracks outcome salience, prosocial tendencies track outcome valence, and the relation between salience and valence is U-shaped. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Bastos2021,

title = {Neural effects of propofol-induced unconsciousness and its reversal using thalamic stimulation},

author = {André M. Bastos and Jacob A. Donoghue and Scott L. Brincat and Meredith Mahnke and Jorge Yanar and Josefina Correa and Ayan S. Waite and Mikael Lundqvist and Jefferson Roy and Emery N. Brown and Earl K. Miller},

doi = {10.7554/ELIFE.60824},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {10},

pages = {e60824},

abstract = {The specific circuit mechanisms through which anesthetics induce unconsciousness have not been completely characterized. We recorded neural activity from the frontal, parietal, and temporal cortices and thalamus while maintaining unconsciousness in non-human primates (NHPs) with the anesthetic propofol. Unconsciousness was marked by slow frequency (~1 Hz) oscillations in local field potentials, entrainment of local spiking to Up states alternating with Down states of little or no spiking activity, and decreased coherence in frequencies above 4 Hz. Thalamic stimulation ‘awakened' anesthetized NHPs and reversed the electrophysiologic features of unconsciousness. Unconsciousness is linked to cortical and thalamic slow frequency synchrony coupled with decreased spiking, and loss of higher-frequency dynamics. This may disrupt cortical communication/integration.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Bogadhi2021,

title = {Midbrain activity shapes high-level visual properties in the primate temporal cortex},

author = {Amarender R. Bogadhi and Leor N. Katz and Anil Bollimunta and David A. Leopold and Richard J. Krauzlis},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2020.11.023},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {109},

number = {4},

pages = {690–699.e5},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Recent fMRI experiments identified an attention-related region in the macaque temporal cortex, here called the floor of the superior temporal sulcus (fSTS), as the primary cortical target of superior colliculus (SC) activity. However, it remains unclear which aspects of attention are processed by fSTS neurons and how or why these might depend on SC activity. Here, we show that SC inactivation decreases attentional modulations in fSTS neurons by increasing their activity for ignored stimuli in addition to decreasing their activity for attended stimuli. Neurons in the fSTS also exhibit event-related activity during attention tasks linked to detection performance, and this link is eliminated during SC inactivation. Finally, fSTS neurons respond selectively to particular visual objects, and this selectivity is reduced markedly during SC inactivation. These diverse, high-level properties of fSTS neurons all involve visual signals that carry behavioral relevance. Their dependence on SC activity could reflect a circuit that prioritizes cortical processing of events detected subcortically. Bogadhi and Katz et al. determine how activity from the midbrain superior colliculus (SC) is necessary for expression of high-level visual properties—attention-related modulation, event detection activity, and object-selective responses—in a newly identified region of the temporal cortex (fSTS) in primates.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Bognar2021,

title = {Moving a shape behind a slit: Partial shape representations in inferior temporal cortex},

author = {Anna Bognár and Rufin Vogels},

doi = {10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0348-21.2021},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neuroscience},

volume = {41},

number = {30},

pages = {6484–6501},

abstract = {Current models of object recognition are based on spatial representations build from object features that are simultaneously present in the retinal image. However, one can recognize an object when it moves behind a static occlude, and only a small fragment of its shape is visible through a slit at a given moment in time. Such anorthoscopic perception requires spatiotemporal integration of the successively presented shape parts during slit-viewing. Human fMRI studies suggested that ventral visual stream areas represent whole shapes formed through temporal integration during anorthoscopic perception. To examine the time course of shape-selective responses during slit-viewing, we recorded the responses of single inferior temporal (IT) neurons of rhesus monkeys to moving shapes that were only partially visible through a static narrow slit. The IT neurons signaled shape identity by their response when that was cumulated across the duration of the shape presentation. Their shape preference during slit-viewing equaled that for static, whole-shape presentations. However, when analyzing their responses at a finer time scale, we showed that the IT neurons responded to particular shape fragments that were revealed by the slit. We found no evidence for temporal integration of slit-views that result in a whole-shape representation, even when the monkey was matching slit-views of a shape to static whole-shape presentations. These data suggest that, although the temporally integrated response of macaque IT neurons can signal shape identity in slit-viewing conditions, the spatiotemporal integration needed for the formation of a whole-shape percept occurs in other areas, perhaps downstream to IT.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Brincat2021,

title = {Interhemispheric transfer of working memories},

author = {Scott L. Brincat and Jacob A. Donoghue and Meredith K. Mahnke and Simon Kornblith and Mikael Lundqvist and Earl K. Miller},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2021.01.016},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {109},

number = {6},

pages = {1055–1066},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Visual working memory (WM) storage is largely independent between the left and right visual hemifields/cerebral hemispheres, yet somehow WM feels seamless. We studied how WM is integrated across hemifields by recording neural activity bilaterally from lateral prefrontal cortex. An instructed saccade during the WM delay shifted the remembered location from one hemifield to the other. Before the shift, spike rates and oscillatory power showed clear signatures of memory laterality. After the shift, the lateralization inverted, consistent with transfer of the memory trace from one hemisphere to the other. Transferred traces initially used different neural ensembles from feedforward-induced ones, but they converged at the end of the delay. Around the time of transfer, synchrony between the two prefrontal hemispheres peaked in theta and beta frequencies, with a directionality consistent with memory trace transfer. This illustrates how dynamics between the two cortical hemispheres can stitch together WM traces across visual hemifields.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Brule2021,

title = {Ketamine reduces temporal expectation in the rhesus monkey},

author = {Sophie Brulé and Bastien Herlin and Pierre Pouget and Marcus Missal},

doi = {10.1007/s00213-020-05706-6},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Psychopharmacology},

volume = {238},

number = {2},

pages = {559–567},

publisher = {Psychopharmacology},

abstract = {Rationale: Ketamine, a well-known general dissociative anesthetic agent that is a non-competitive antagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, perturbs the perception of elapsed time and the expectation of upcoming events. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the influence of ketamine on temporal expectation in the rhesus monkey. Methods: Two rhesus monkeys were trained to make a saccade between a central warning stimulus and an eccentric visual target that served as imperative stimulus. The delay between the warning and the imperative stimulus could take one of four different values randomly with the same probability (variable foreperiod paradigm). During experimental sessions, a subanesthetic low dose of ketamine (0.25–0.35 mg/kg) was injected i.m. and the influence of the drug on movement latency was measured. Results: We found that in the control conditions, saccadic latencies strongly decreased with elapsed time before the appearance of the visual target showing that temporal expectation built up during the delay period between the warning and the imperative stimulus. However, after ketamine injection, temporal expectation was significantly reduced in both subjects. In addition, ketamine also increased average movement latency but this effect could be dissociated from the reduction of temporal expectation. Conclusion: In conclusion, a subanesthetic dose of ketamine could have two independent effects: increasing reaction time and decreasing temporal expectation. This alteration of temporal expectation could explain cognitive deficits observed during ketamine use.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Cain2021,

title = {Passive motor learning: Oculomotor adaptation in the absence of behavioral errors},

author = {Matan Cain and Yehudit Botschko and Mati Joshua},

doi = {10.1523/ENEURO.0232-20.2020},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {eNeuro},

volume = {8},

number = {2},

pages = {1–12},

abstract = {Motor adaptation is commonly thought to be a trial-and-error process in which the accuracy of movement improves with repetition of behavior. We challenged this view by testing whether erroneous movements are necessary for motor adaptation. In the eye movement system, the association between movements and errors can be disentangled, since errors in the predicted stimulus trajectory can be perceived even without movements. We modified a smooth pursuit eye movement adaptation paradigm in which monkeys learn to make an eye movement that predicts an upcoming change in target direction. We trained the monkeys to fixate on a target while covertly, an additional target initially moved in one direction and then changed direction after 250 ms. The monkeys showed a learned response to infre-quent probe trials in which they were instructed to follow the moving target. Additional experiments confirmed that probing learning or residual eye movements during fixation did not drive learning. These results show that motor adaptation can be elicited in the absence of movement and provide an animal model for studying the implementation of passive motor learning. Current models assume that the interaction between movement and error signals underlies adaptive motor learning. Our results point to other mechanisms that may drive learning in the absence of movement.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Caprara2021,

title = {The causal role of three frontal cortical areas in grasping},

author = {I. Caprara and P. Janssen},

doi = {10.1093/cercor/bhab085},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Cerebral Cortex},

volume = {31},

number = {9},

pages = {4274–4288},

abstract = {Efficient object grasping requires the continuous control of arm and hand movements based on visual information. Previous studies have identified a network of parietal and frontal areas that is crucial for the visual control of prehension movements. Electrical microstimulation of 3D shape-selective clusters in AIP during functional magnetic resonance imaging activates areas F5a and 45B, suggesting that these frontal areas may represent important downstream areas for object processing during grasping, but the role of area F5a and 45B in grasping is unknown. To assess their causal role in the frontal grasping network, we reversibly inactivated 45B, F5a, and F5p during visually guided grasping in macaque monkeys. First, we recorded single neuron activity in 45B, F5a, and F5p to identify sites with object responses during grasping. Then, we injected muscimol or saline to measure the grasping deficit induced by the temporary disruption of each of these three nodes in the grasping network. The inactivation of all three areas resulted in a significant increase in the grasping time in both animals, with the strongest effect observed in area F5p. These results not only confirm a clear involvement of F5p, but also indicate causal contributions of area F5a and 45B in visually guided object grasping.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Caruso2021,

title = {Compensating for a shifting world: A quantitative comparison of the reference frame of visual and auditory signals across three multimodal brain areas},

author = {Valeria C. Caruso and Daniel S. Pages and Marc A. Sommer and Jennifer M. Groh},

doi = {10.1101/669333},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neurophysiology},

volume = {126},

pages = {82–94},

abstract = {Stimulus locations are detected differently by different sensory systems, but ultimately they yield similar percepts and behavioral responses. How the brain transcends initial differences to compute similar codes is unclear. We quantitatively compared the reference frames of two sensory modalities, vision and audition, across three interconnected brain areas involved in generating saccades, namely the frontal eye fields (FEF), lateral and medial parietal cortex (LIP/MIP), and superior colliculus (SC). We recorded from single neurons in head-restrained monkeys performing auditory- and visually-guided saccades from variable initial fixation locations, and evaluated whether their receptive fields were better described as eye-centered, head-centered, or hybrid (i.e. not anchored uniquely to head- or eye-orientation). We found a progression of reference frames across areas and across time, with considerable hybrid-ness and persistent differences between modalities during most epochs/brain regions. For both modalities, the SC was more eye-centered than the FEF, which in turn was more eye-centered than the predominantly hybrid LIP/MIP. In all three areas and temporal epochs from stimulus onset to movement, visual signals were more eye-centered than auditory signals. In the SC and FEF, auditory signals became more eye-centered at the time of the saccade than they were initially after stimulus onset, but only in the SC at the time of the saccade did the auditory signals become predominantly eye-centered. The results indicate that visual and auditory signals both undergo transformations, ultimately reaching the same final reference frame but via different dynamics across brain regions and time. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Models for visual-auditory integration posit that visual signals are eye-centered throughout the brain, while auditory signals are converted from head-centered to eye-centered coordinates. We show instead that both modalities largely employ hybrid reference frames: neither fully head-nor eye-centered. In three multimodal regions involved in orienting behaviors (Intraparietal Cortex, Frontal Eye Field and Superior Colliculus) these mixed codes persist in various proportions, shifting towards eye-centeredness both across time and across brain areas. Throughout, visual signals are more eye-centered than auditory signals, until a common predominantly eye-centered code for sound finally emerges during the saccade burst in the Superior Colliculus. In summary, visual and auditory signals reach the same final reference frame but via different dynamics across brain regions and time.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Chelaru2021,

title = {High-order interactions explain the collective behavior of cortical populations in executive but not sensory areas},

author = {Mircea I. Chelaru and Sarah Eagleman and Ariana R. Andrei and Russell Milton and Natasha Kharas and Valentin Dragoi},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2021.09.042},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {109},

number = {24},

pages = {3954–3961},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {One influential view in neuroscience is that pairwise cell interactions explain the firing patterns of large populations. Despite its prevalence, this view originates from studies in the retina and visual cortex of anesthetized animals. Whether pairwise interactions predict the firing patterns of neurons across multiple brain areas in behaving animals remains unknown. Here, we performed multi-area electrical recordings to find that 2nd-order interactions explain a high fraction of entropy of the population response in macaque cortical areas V1 and V4. Surprisingly, despite the brain-state modulation of neuronal responses, the model based on pairwise interactions captured ∼90% of the spiking activity structure during wakefulness and sleep. However, regardless of brain state, pairwise interactions fail to explain experimentally observed entropy in neural populations from the prefrontal cortex. Thus, while simple pairwise interactions explain the collective behavior of visual cortical networks across brain states, explaining the population dynamics in downstream areas involves higher-order interactions.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Churan2021,

title = {Action-dependent processing of self-motion in parietal cortex of macaque monkeys},

author = {Jan Churan and Andre Kaminiarz and Jakob C. B. Schwenk and Frank Bremmer},

doi = {10.1152/jn.00049.2021},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neurophysiology},

volume = {125},

number = {6},

pages = {2432–2443},

abstract = {Successful interaction with the environment requires the dissociation of self-induced from externally induced sensory stimulation. Temporal proximity of action and effect is hereby often used as an indicator of whether an observed event should be interpreted as a result of own actions or not. We tested how the delay between an action (press of a touch bar) and an effect (onset of simulated self-motion) influences the processing of visually simulated self-motion in the ventral intraparietal area (VIP) of macaque monkeys. We found that a delay between the action and the start of the self-motion stimulus led to a rise of activity above the baseline activity before motion onset in a subpopulation of 21% of the investigated neurons. In the responses to the stimulus, we found a significantly lower sustained activity when the press of a touch bar and the motion onset were contiguous compared to the condition when the motion onset was delayed. We speculate that this weak inhibitory effect might be part of a mechanism that sharpens the tuning of VIP neurons during self-induced motion and thus has the potential to increase the precision of heading information that is required to adjust the orientation of self-motion in everyday navigational tasks. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Neurons in macaque ventral intraparietal area (VIP) are responding to sensory stimulation related to self-motion, e.g. visual optic flow. Here, we found that self-motion induced activation depends on the sense of agency, i.e., it differed when optic flow was perceived as self- or externally induced. This demonstrates that area VIP is well suited for study of the interplay between active behavior and sensory processing during self-motion.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Churan2021a,

title = {Coding of interceptive saccades in parietal cortex of macaque monkeys},

author = {Jan Churan and Andre Kaminiarz and Jakob C. B. Schwenk and Frank Bremmer},

doi = {10.1007/s00429-021-02365-x},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Brain Structure and Function},

volume = {226},

number = {8},

pages = {2707–2723},

publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},

abstract = {The oculomotor system can initiate remarkably accurate saccades towards moving targets (interceptive saccades) the processing of which is still under debate. The generation of these saccades requires the oculomotor centers to have information about the motion parameters of the target that then must be extrapolated to bridge the inherent processing delays. We investigated to what degree the information about motion of a saccade target is available in the lateral intra-parietal area (area LIP) of macaque monkeys for generation of accurate interceptive saccades. When a multi-layer neural network was trained based on neural discharges from area LIP around the time of saccades towards stationary targets, it was also able to predict the end points of saccades directed towards moving targets. This prediction, however, lagged behind the actual post-saccadic position of the moving target by ~ 80 ms when the whole neuronal sample of 105 neurons was used. We further found that single neurons differentially code for the motion of the target. Selecting neurons with the strongest representation of target motion reduced this lag to ~ 30 ms which represents the position of the moving target approximately at the onset of the interceptive saccade. We conclude that—similarly to recent findings from the Superior Colliculus (Goffart et al. J Neurophysiol 118(5):2890–2901)—there is a continuum of contributions of individual LIP neurons to the accuracy of interceptive saccades. A contribution of other gaze control centers (like the cerebellum or the frontal eye field) that further increase the saccadic accuracy is, however, likely.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Jendritza2021,

title = {Visual neuroscience methods for marmosets: Efficient receptive field mapping and head-free eye tracking},

author = {Patrick Jendritza and Frederike J. Klein and Gustavo Rohenkohl and Pascal Fries},

doi = {10.1523/ENEURO.0489-20.2021},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {eNeuro},

volume = {8},

number = {3},

pages = {1–16},

abstract = {The marmoset has emerged as a promising primate model system, in particular for visual neuroscience. Many common experimental paradigms rely on head fixation and an extended period of eye fixation during the pre-sentation of salient visual stimuli. Both of these behavioral requirements can be challenging for marmosets. Here, we present two methodological developments, each addressing one of these difficulties. First, we show that it is possible to use a standard eye-tracking system without head fixation to assess visual behavior in the marmoset. Eye-tracking quality from head-free animals is sufficient to obtain precise psychometric functions from a visual acuity task. Second, we introduce a novel method for efficient receptive field (RF) mapping that does not rely on moving stimuli but uses fast flashing annuli and wedges. We present data recorded during head-fixation in areas V1 and V6 and show that RF locations are readily obtained within a short period of recording time. Thus, the methodological advancements presented in this work will contribute to establish the marmoset as a valuable model in neuroscience.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Jezzini2021,

title = {A prefrontal network integrates preferences for advance information about uncertain rewards and punishments},

author = {Ahmad Jezzini and Ethan S. Bromberg-Martin and Lucas R. Trambaiolli and Suzanne N. Haber and Ilya E. Monosov},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2021.05.013},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {109},

number = {14},

pages = {2339–2352},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Humans and animals can be strongly motivated to seek information to resolve uncertainty about rewards and punishments. In particular, despite its clinical and societal relevance, very little is known about information seeking about punishments. We show that attitudes toward information about punishments and rewards are distinct and separable at both behavioral and neuronal levels. We demonstrate the existence of prefrontal neuronal populations that anticipate opportunities to gain information in a relatively valence-specific manner, separately anticipating information about either punishments or rewards. These neurons are located in anatomically interconnected subregions of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) in area 12o/47. Unlike ACC, vlPFC also contains a population of neurons that integrate attitudes toward both reward and punishment information, to encode the overall preference for information in a bivalent manner. This cortical network is well suited to mediate information seeking by integrating the desire to resolve uncertainty about multiple, distinct motivational outcomes.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Jun2021,

title = {Causal role for the primate superior colliculus in the computation of evidence for perceptual decisions},

author = {Elizabeth J. Jun and Alex R. Bautista and Michael D. Nunez and Daicia C. Allen and Jung H. Tak and Eduardo Alvarez and Michele A. Basso},

doi = {10.1038/s41593-021-00878-6},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Neuroscience},

volume = {24},

number = {8},

pages = {1121–1131},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Trained monkeys performed a two-choice perceptual decision-making task in which they reported the perceived orientation of a dynamic Glass pattern, before and after unilateral, reversible, inactivation of a brainstem area—the superior colliculus (SC)—involved in preparing eye movements. We found that unilateral SC inactivation produced significant decision biases and changes in reaction times consistent with a causal role for the primate SC in perceptual decision-making. Fitting signal detection theory and sequential sampling models to the data showed that SC inactivation produced a decrease in the relative evidence for contralateral decisions, as if adding a constant offset to a time-varying evidence signal for the ipsilateral choice. The results provide causal evidence for an embodied cognition model of perceptual decision-making and provide compelling evidence that the SC of primates (a brainstem structure) plays a causal role in how evidence is computed for decisions—a process usually attributed to the forebrain.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Kang2021,

title = {Primate ventral striatum maintains neural representations of the value of previously rewarded objects for habitual seeking},

author = {Joonyoung Kang and Hyeji Kim and Seong Hwan Hwang and Minjun Han and Sue-Hyun Lee and Hyoung F. Kim},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-021-22335-5},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {12},

pages = {2100},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {The ventral striatum (VS) is considered a key region that flexibly updates recent changes in reward values for habit learning. However, this update process may not serve to maintain learned habitual behaviors, which are insensitive to value changes. Here, using fMRI in humans and single-unit electrophysiology in macaque monkeys we report another role of the primate VS: that the value memory subserving habitual seeking is stably maintained in the VS. Days after object-value associative learning, human and monkey VS continue to show increased responses to previously rewarded objects, even when no immediate reward outcomes are expected. The similarity of neural response patterns to each rewarded object increases after learning among participants who display habitual seeking. Our data show that long-term memory of high-valued objects is retained as a single representation in the VS and may be utilized to evaluate visual stimuli automatically to guide habitual behavior.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Kar2021,

title = {Fast recurrent processing via ventrolateral prefrontal cortex Is needed by the primate ventral stream for robust core visual object recognition},

author = {Kohitij Kar and James J. DiCarlo},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2020.09.035},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {109},

number = {1},

pages = {164–176},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Distributed neural population spiking patterns in macaque inferior temporal (IT) cortex that support core object recognition require additional time to develop for specific, “late-solved” images. This suggests the necessity of recurrent processing in these computations. Which brain circuits are responsible for computing and transmitting these putative recurrent signals to IT? To test whether the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) is a critical recurrent node in this system, here, we pharmacologically inactivated parts of vlPFC and simultaneously measured IT activity while monkeys performed object discrimination tasks. vlPFC inactivation deteriorated the quality of late-phase (>150 ms from image onset) IT population code and produced commensurate behavioral deficits for late-solved images. Finally, silencing vlPFC caused the monkeys' IT activity and behavior to become more like those produced by feedforward-only ventral stream models. Together with prior work, these results implicate fast recurrent processing through vlPFC as critical to producing behaviorally sufficient object representations in IT.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Khandhadia2021,

title = {Audiovisual integration in macaque face patch neurons},

author = {Amit P. Khandhadia and Aidan P. Murphy and Lizabeth M. Romanski and Jennifer K. Bizley and David A. Leopold},

doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.102},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Current Biology},

volume = {31},

number = {9},

pages = {1826–1835},

publisher = {Elsevier Ltd.},

abstract = {Primate social communication depends on the perceptual integration of visual and auditory cues, reflected in the multimodal mixing of sensory signals in certain cortical areas. The macaque cortical face patch network, identified through visual, face-selective responses measured with fMRI, is assumed to contribute to visual social interactions. However, whether face patch neurons are also influenced by acoustic information, such as the auditory component of a natural vocalization, remains unknown. Here, we recorded single-unit activity in the anterior fundus (AF) face patch, in the superior temporal sulcus, and anterior medial (AM) face patch, on the undersurface of the temporal lobe, in macaques presented with audiovisual, visual-only, and auditory-only renditions of natural movies of macaques vocalizing. The results revealed that 76% of neurons in face patch AF were significantly influenced by the auditory component of the movie, most often through enhancement of visual responses but sometimes in response to the auditory stimulus alone. By contrast, few neurons in face patch AM exhibited significant auditory responses or modulation. Control experiments in AF used an animated macaque avatar to demonstrate, first, that the structural elements of the face were often essential for audiovisual modulation and, second, that the temporal modulation of the acoustic stimulus was more important than its frequency spectrum. Together, these results identify a striking contrast between two face patches and specifically identify AF as playing a potential role in the integration of audiovisual cues during natural modes of social communication.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Kim2021d,

title = {Perceptual texture dimensions modulate neuronal response dynamics in visual cortical area V4},

author = {Taekjun Kim and Wyeth Bair and Anitha Pasupathy},

doi = {10.1523/jneurosci.0971-21.2021},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neuroscience},

pages = {1–51},

abstract = {Texture is an important visual attribute for surface pattern discrimination and therefore object segmentation, but the neural bases of texture perception are largely unknown. Previously, we demonstrated that the responses of V4 neurons to naturalistic texture patches are sensitive to four key features of human texture perception: coarseness, directionality, regularity, and contrast. To begin to understand how distinct texture perception emerges from the dynamics of neuronal responses, in 2 macaque monkeys (1 male, 1 female), we investigated the relative contribution of the four texture attributes to V4 responses in terms of the strength and timing of response modulation. We found that the different feature dimensions are associated with different temporal dynamics. Specifically, the response modulation associated with directionality and regularity was significantly delayed relative to that associated with coarseness and contrast, suggesting that the latter are fundamentally simpler feature dimensions. The population of texture-selective neurons could be grouped into multiple clusters based on the combination of feature dimensions encoded, and those subpopulations displayed distinct temporal dynamics characterized by the weighted combinations of multiple features. Finally, we applied a population decoding approach to demonstrate that texture category information can be obtained from short temporal windows across time. These results demonstrate that the representation of different perceptually relevant texture features emerge over time in the responses of V4 neurons. The observed temporal organization provides a framework to interpret how the processing of surface features unfolds in early and midlevel cortical stages, and could ultimately inform the interpretation of perceptual texture dynamics.Significance Statement:To delineate how neuronal responses underlie our ability to perceive visual textures, we related four key perceptual dimensions (coarseness, directionality, regularity, and contrast) of naturalistic textures to the strength and timing of modulation of neuronal responses in area V4, an intermediate stage in the form-processing, ventral visual pathway. Our results provide the first characterization of V4 temporal dynamics for texture encoding along perceptually defined axes.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Knudsen2021,

title = {Hippocampal neurons construct a map of an abstract value space},

author = {Eric B. Knudsen and Joni D. Wallis},

doi = {10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.010},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Cell},

volume = {184},

number = {18},

pages = {4640–4650},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {The hippocampus is thought to encode a “cognitive map,” a structural organization of knowledge about relationships in the world. Place cells, spatially selective hippocampal neurons that have been extensively studied in rodents, are one component of this map, describing the relative position of environmental features. However, whether this map extends to abstract, cognitive information remains unknown. Using the relative reward value of cues to define continuous “paths” through an abstract value space, we show that single neurons in primate hippocampus encode this space through value place fields, much like a rodent's place neurons encode paths through physical space. Value place fields remapped when cues changed but also became increasingly correlated across contexts, allowing maps to become generalized. Our findings help explain the critical contribution of the hippocampus to value-based decision-making, providing a mechanism by which knowledge of relationships in the world can be incorporated into reward predictions for guiding decisions.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Koyano2021,

title = {Dynamic suppression of average facial structure shapes neural tuning in three macaque face patches},

author = {Kenji W. Koyano and Adam P. Jones and David B. T. McMahon and Elena N. Waidmann and Brian E. Russ and David A. Leopold},

doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2020.09.070},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Current Biology},

volume = {31},

number = {1},

pages = {1–12},

publisher = {Elsevier Ltd.},

abstract = {The visual perception of identity in humans and other primates is thought to draw upon cortical areas specialized for the analysis of facial structure. A prominent theory of face recognition holds that the brain computes and stores average facial structure, which it then uses to efficiently determine individual identity, though the neural mechanisms underlying this process are controversial. Here, we demonstrate that the dynamic suppression of average facial structure plays a prominent role in the responses of neurons in three fMRI-defined face patches of the macaque. Using photorealistic face stimuli that systematically varied in identity level according to a psychophysically based face space, we found that single units in the AF, AM, and ML face patches exhibited robust tuning around average facial structure. This tuning emerged after the initial excitatory response to the face and was expressed as the selective suppression of sustained responses to low-identity faces. The coincidence of this suppression with increased spike timing synchrony across the population suggests a mechanism of active inhibition underlying this effect. Control experiments confirmed that the diminished responses to low-identity faces were not due to short-term adaptation processes. We propose that the brain's neural suppression of average facial structure facilitates recognition by promoting the extraction of distinctive facial characteristics and suppressing redundant or irrelevant responses across the population.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Krishna2021b,

title = {Decision signals in the local field potentials of early and mid-level macaque visual cortex},

author = {Aravind Krishna and Seiji Tanabe and Adam Kohn},

doi = {10.1093/cercor/bhaa218},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Cerebral Cortex},

volume = {31},

number = {1},

pages = {169–183},

abstract = {The neural basis of perceptual decision making has typically been studied using measurements of single neuron activity, though decisions are likely based on the activity of large neuronal ensembles. Local field potentials (LFPs) may, in some cases, serve as a useful proxy for population activity and thus be useful for understanding the neural basis of perceptual decision making. However, little is known about whether LFPs in sensory areas include decision-related signals. We therefore analyzed LFPs recorded using two 48-electrode arrays implanted in primary visual cortex (V1) and area V4 of macaque monkeys trained to perform a fine orientation discrimination task. We found significant choice information in low (0-30 Hz) and higher (70-500 Hz) frequency components of the LFP, but little information in gamma frequencies (30-70 Hz). Choice information was more robust in V4 than V1 and stronger in LFPs than in simultaneously measured spiking activity. LFP-based choice information included a global component, common across electrodes within an area. Our findings reveal the presence of robust choice-related signals in the LFPs recorded in V1 and V4 and suggest that LFPs may be a useful complement to spike-based analyses of decision making.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ma2021,

title = {Processing of motion-boundary orientation in macaque V2},

author = {Heng Ma and Pengcheng Li and Jiaming Hu and Xingya Cai and Qianling Song and Haidong D. Lu},

doi = {10.7554/eLife.61317},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {10},

pages = {e61317},

abstract = {Human and non-human primates are good at identifying an object based on its motion, a task that is believed to be carried out by the ventral visual pathway. However, the neural mechanisms underlying such ability remains unclear. We trained macaque monkeys to do orientation discrimination for motion-boundaries (MB) and recorded neuronal response in area V2 with microelectrode arrays. We found 10.9% of V2 neurons exhibited robust orientation-selectivity to MBs, and their responses correlated with monkeys' orientation-discrimination performances. Furthermore, the responses of V2 direction-selective neurons recorded at the same time showed correlated activity with MB neurons for particular MB stimuli, suggesting that these motion-sensitive neurons made specific functional contributions to MB discrimination tasks. Our findings support the view that V2 plays a critical role in MB analysis and may achieve this through a neural circuit within area V2.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Maisson2021,

title = {Choice-relevant information transformation along a ventrodorsal axis in the medial prefrontal cortex},

author = {David J. N. Maisson and Tyler V. Cash-Padgett and Maya Z. Wang and Benjamin Y. Hayden and Sarah R. Heilbronner and Jan Zimmermann},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-021-25219-w},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {12},

pages = {4830},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Choice-relevant brain regions in prefrontal cortex may progressively transform information about options into choices. Here, we examine responses of neurons in four regions of the medial prefrontal cortex as macaques performed two-option risky choices. All four regions encode economic variables in similar proportions and show similar putative signatures of key choice-related computations. We provide evidence to support a gradient of function that proceeds from areas 14 to 25 to 32 to 24. Specifically, we show that decodability of twelve distinct task variables increases along that path, consistent with the idea that regions that are higher in the anatomical hierarchy make choice-relevant variables more separable. We also show progressively longer intrinsic timescales in the same series. Together these results highlight the importance of the medial wall in choice, endorse a specific gradient-based organization, and argue against a modular functional neuroanatomy of choice.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Malevich2021,

title = {Dependence of the stimulus-driven microsaccade rate signature in rhesus macaque monkeys on visual stimulus size and polarity},

author = {Tatiana Malevich and Antimo Buonocore and Ziad M. Hafed},

doi = {10.1152/JN.00304.2020},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neurophysiology},

volume = {125},

number = {1},

pages = {282–295},

abstract = {Microsaccades have a steady rate of occurrence during maintained gaze fixation, which gets transiently modulated by abrupt sensory stimuli. Such modulation, characterized by a rapid reduction in microsaccade frequency followed by a stronger rebound phase of high microsaccade rate, is often described as the microsaccadic rate signature, owing to its stereotyped nature. Here, we investigated the impacts of stimulus polarity (luminance increments or luminance decrements relative to background luminance) and size on the microsaccadic rate signature. We presented brief, behaviorally irrelevant visual flashes consisting of large or small, white or black stimuli over an otherwise gray image background. Both large and small stimuli caused robust early microsaccadic inhibition, but postinhibition microsaccade rate rebound was significantly delayed and weakened for large stimuli when compared with small ones. Critically, small black stimuli were associated with stronger modulations in the microsaccade rate signature than small white stimuli, particularly in the postinhibition rebound phase, and black stimuli also amplified the incidence of early stimulus-directed microsaccades. Our results demonstrate that the microsaccadic rate signature is sensitive to stimulus size and polarity, and they point to dissociable neural mechanisms underlying early microsaccadic inhibition after stimulus onset and later microsaccadic rate rebound at longer times thereafter. These results also demonstrate early access of oculomotor control circuitry to diverse sensory representations, particularly for momentarily inhibiting saccade generation with short latencies. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Microsaccade rate is transiently reduced after sudden stimulus onsets, and then strongly rebounds before returning to baseline. We explored the influence of stimulus polarity (black vs. white) and size on this “rate signature.” Large stimuli caused more muted microsaccadic rebound than small ones, and microsaccadic rebound was also differentially affected by black versus white stimuli, particularly with small stimuli. These results suggest dissociated neural mechanisms for microsaccadic inhibition and rebound in the microsaccadic rate signature.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Yun2021,

title = {Single-unit recording in awake behaving non-human primates},

author = {Mengxi Yun and Masafumi Nejime and Masayuki Matsumoto},

doi = {10.21769/BioProtoc.3987},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Bio-protocol},

volume = {11},

number = {8},

pages = {1–16},

abstract = {Non-human primates (NHPs) have been widely used as a species model in studies to understand higher brain functions in health and disease. These studies employ specifically designed behavioral tasks in which animal behavior is well-controlled, and record neuronal activity at high spatial and temporal resolutions while animals are performing the tasks. Here, we present a detailed procedure to conduct single-unit recording, which fulfils high spatial and temporal resolutions while macaque monkeys (i.e., widely used NHPs) perform behavioral tasks in a well-controlled manner. This procedure was used in our previous study to investigate the dynamics of neuronal activity during economic decision-making by the monkeys. Monkeys' behavior was quantitated by eye position tracking and button press/release detection. By inserting a microelectrode into the brain, with a grid system in reference to magnetic resonance imaging, we precisely recorded the brain regions. Our experimental system permits rigorous investigation of the link between neuronal activity and behavior.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zhang2021a,

title = {Transforming absolute value to categorical choice in primate superior colliculus during value-based decision making},

author = {Beizhen Zhang and Janis Ying Ying Kan and Mingpo Yang and Xiaochun Wang and Jiahao Tu and Michael Christopher Dorris},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-021-23747-z},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {12},

number = {1},

pages = {3410},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Value-based decision making involves choosing from multiple options with different values. Despite extensive studies on value representation in various brain regions, the neural mechanism for how multiple value options are converted to motor actions remains unclear. To study this, we developed a multi-value foraging task with varying menu of items in non-human primates using eye movements that dissociates value and choice, and conducted electrophysiological recording in the midbrain superior colliculus (SC). SC neurons encoded “absolute” value, independent of available options, during late fixation. In addition, SC neurons also represent value threshold, modulated by available options, different from conventional motor threshold. Electrical stimulation of SC neurons biased choices in a manner predicted by the difference between the value representation and the value threshold. These results reveal a neural mechanism directly transforming absolute values to categorical choices within SC, supporting highly efficient value-based decision making critical for real-world economic behaviors.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zhou2021g,

title = {Distributed functions of prefrontal and parietal cortices during sequential categorical decisions},

author = {Yang Zhou and Matthew C. Rosen and Sruthi K. Swaminathan and Nicolas Y. Masse and Ou Zhu and David J. Freedman},

doi = {10.7554/ELIFE.58782},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {10},

pages = {1–30},

abstract = {Comparing sequential stimuli is crucial for guiding complex behaviors. To understand mechanisms underlying sequential decisions, we compared neuronal responses in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the lateral intraparietal (LIP), and medial intraparietal (MIP) areas in monkeys trained to decide whether sequentially presented stimuli were from matching (M) or nonmatching (NM) categories. We found that PFC leads M/NM decisions, whereas LIP and MIP appear more involved in stimulus evaluation and motor planning, respectively. Compared to LIP, PFC showed greater nonlinear integration of currently visible and remembered stimuli, which correlated with the monkeys' M/NM decisions. Furthermore, multi-module recurrent networks trained on the same task exhibited key features of PFC and LIP encoding, including nonlinear integration in the PFC-like module, which was causally involved in the networks' decisions. Network analysis found that nonlinear units have stronger and more widespread connections with input, output, and within-area units, indicating putative circuit-level mechanisms for sequential decisions.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Meirhaeghe2021,

title = {A precise and adaptive neural mechanism for predictive temporal processing in the frontal cortex},

author = {Nicolas Meirhaeghe and Hansem Sohn and Mehrdad Jazayeri},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2021.08.025},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {109},

number = {18},

pages = {2995–3011.e5},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {The theory of predictive processing posits that the brain computes expectations to process information predictively. Empirical evidence in support of this theory, however, is scarce and largely limited to sensory areas. Here, we report a precise and adaptive mechanism in the frontal cortex of non-human primates consistent with predictive processing of temporal events. We found that the speed of neural dynamics is precisely adjusted according to the average time of an expected stimulus. This speed adjustment, in turn, enables neurons to encode stimuli in terms of deviations from expectation. This lawful relationship was evident across multiple experiments and held true during learning: when temporal statistics underwent covert changes, neural responses underwent predictable changes that reflected the new mean. Together, these results highlight a precise mathematical relationship between temporal statistics in the environment and neural activity in the frontal cortex that may serve as a mechanism for predictive temporal processing.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Merken2021,

title = {Behavioral effects of continuous theta-burst stimulation in macaque parietal cortex},

author = {Lara Merken and Marco Davare and Peter Janssen and Maria C. Romero},

doi = {10.1038/s41598-021-83904-8},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Scientific Reports},

volume = {11},

pages = {4511},

publisher = {Nature Publishing Group UK},

abstract = {The neural mechanisms underlying the effects of continuous Theta-Burst Stimulation (cTBS) in humans are poorly understood. Animal studies can clarify the effects of cTBS on individual neurons, but behavioral evidence is necessary to demonstrate the validity of the animal model. We investigated the behavioral effect of cTBS applied over parietal cortex in rhesus monkeys performing a visually-guided grasping task with two differently sized objects, which required either a power grip or a pad-to-side grip. We used Fitts' law, predicting shorter grasping times (GT) for large compared to small objects, to investigate cTBS effects on two different grip types. cTBS induced long-lasting object-specific and dose-dependent changes in GT that remained present for up to two hours. High-intensity cTBS increased GTs for a power grip, but shortened GTs for a pad-to-side grip. Thus, high-intensity stimulation strongly reduced the natural GT difference between objects (i.e. the Fitts' law effect). In contrast, low-intensity cTBS induced the opposite effects on GT. Modifying the coil orientation from the standard 45-degree to a 30-degree angle induced opposite cTBS effects on GT. These findings represent behavioral evidence for the validity of the nonhuman primate model to study the neural underpinnings of non-invasive brain stimulation.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Merrikhi2021,

title = {Dissociable contribution of extrastriate responses to representational enhancement of gaze targets},

author = {Yaser Merrikhi and Mohammad Shams-Ahmar and Hamid Karimi-Rouzbahani and Kelsey Clark and Reza Ebrahimpour and Behrad Noudoost},

doi = {10.1162/jocn_a_01750},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience},

volume = {33},

number = {10},

pages = {2167–2180},

abstract = {Before saccadic eyemovements, our perception of the saccade targets is enhanced. Changes in the visual representation of saccade targets, which presumably underlie this perceptual benefit, emerge even before the eye begins to move. This perisaccadic enhancement has been shown to involve changes in the response magnitude, selectivity, and reliability of visual neurons. In this study, we quantified multiple aspects of perisaccadic changes in the neural response, including gain, feature tuning, contrast response function, reliability, and correlated activity between neurons. Wethen assessed the contributions of these various perisaccadic modulations to the population's enhanced perisaccadic representation of saccade targets. We found a partial dissociation between the motor information, carried entirely by gain changes, and visual information,which depended on all three types ofmodulation. These findings expand our understanding of the perisaccadic enhancement of visual representations and further support the existence of multiple sources of motor modulation and visual enhancement within extrastriate visual cortex.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Nakhla2021,

title = {Neural selectivity for visual motion in macaque area v3a},

author = {Nardin Nakhla and Yavar Korkian and Matthew R. Krause and Christopher C. Pack},

doi = {10.1523/ENEURO.0383-20.2020},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {eNeuro},

volume = {8},

number = {1},

pages = {1–14},

abstract = {The processing of visual motion is conducted by dedicated pathways in the primate brain. These pathways originate with populations of direction-selective neurons in the primary visual cortex, which projects to dorsal structures like the middle temporal (MT) and medial superior temporal (MST) areas. Anatomical and imaging studies have suggested that area V3A might also be specialized for motion processing, but there have been very few studies of single-neuron direction selectivity in this area. We have therefore performed electrophysiological recordings from V3A neurons in two macaque monkeys (one male and one female) and measured responses to a large battery of motion stimuli that includes translation motion, as well as more complex optic flow patterns. For comparison, we simultaneously recorded the responses of MT neurons to the same stimuli. Surprisingly, we find that overall levels of direction selectivity are similar in V3A and MT and moreover that the population of V3A neurons exhibits somewhat greater selectivity for optic flow patterns. These results suggest that V3A should be considered as part of the motion processing machinery of the visual cortex, in both human and non-human primates.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Namima2021,

title = {Encoding of partially occluded and occluding objects in primate inferior temporal cortex},

author = {Tomoyuki Namima and Anitha Pasupathy},

doi = {10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2992-20.2021},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neuroscience},

volume = {41},

number = {26},

pages = {5662–5666},

abstract = {Object segmentation-the process of parsing visual scenes-is essential for object recognition and scene understanding. We investigated how responses of neurons in macaque inferior temporal (IT) cortex contribute to object segmentation under partial occlusion. Specifically, we asked whether IT responses to occluding and occluded objects are bound together as in the visual image or linearly separable reflecting their segmentation. We recorded the activity of 121 IT neurons while two male animals performed a shape discrimination task under partial occlusion. We found that for a majority (60%) of neurons, responses were enhanced by partial occlusion, but they were only weakly shape selective for the discriminanda at all levels of occlusion. Enhancement of IT responses in these neurons depended largely on the area of occlusion but only minimally on the color and shape of the occluding dots. In contrast to the above group of neurons, a sizable minority responded best to the unoccluded stimulus and showed strong selectivity for the shape of the discriminanda. In these neurons, response magnitude and shape selectivity declined with increasing levels of occlusion. Simulations revealed that the response characteristics of both classes of neurons were consistent with a model in which the responses to the occluded shape and the occluders are weighted separately and linearly combined. Overall, our results support the hypothesis that information about occluded and occluding stimuli are linearly separable and easily decodable from IT responses and that IT neurons encode a segmented representation of the visual scene.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Nigam2021,

title = {A distinct population of heterogeneously color-tuned neurons in macaque visual cortex},

author = {Sunny Nigam and Sorin Pojoga and Valentin Dragoi},

doi = {10.1126/sciadv.abc5837},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Science Advances},

volume = {7},

number = {8},

pages = {eabc5837},

abstract = {Color is a key feature of natural environments that higher mammals routinely use to detect food, avoid predators, and interpret social signals. The distribution of color signals in natural scenes is widely variable, ranging from uniform patches to highly nonuniform regions in which different colors lie in close proximity. Whether individual neurons are tuned to this high degree of variability of color signals is unknown. Here, we identified a distinct population of cells in macaque visual cortex (area V4) that have a heterogeneous receptive field (RF) structure in which individual subfields are tuned to different colors even though the full RF is only weakly tuned. This spatial heterogeneity in color tuning indicates a higher degree of complexity of color-encoding mechanisms in visual cortex than previously believed to efficiently extract chromatic information from the environment.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ninomiya2021,

title = {Live agent preference and social action monitoring in the macaque mid-superior temporal sulcus region},

author = {Taihei Ninomiya and Atsushi Noritake and Masaki Isoda},

doi = {10.1073/pnas.2109653118},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},

volume = {118},

number = {44},

pages = {e2109653118},

abstract = {Mentalizing, the ability to infer the mental states of others, is a cornerstone of adaptive social intelligence. While functional brain mapping of human mentalizing has progressed considerably, its evolutionary signature in nonhuman primates remains debated. The discovery that the middle part of the macaque superior temporal sulcus (mid-STS) region has a connectional fingerprint most similar to the human temporoparietal junction (TPJ)-a crucial node in the mentalizing network-raises the possibility that these cortical areas may also share basic functional properties associated with mentalizing. Here, we show that this is the case in aspects of a preference for live social interactions and in a theoretical framework of predictive coding. Macaque monkeys were trained to perform a turn-taking choice task with another real monkey partner sitting directly face-to-face or a filmed partner appearing in prerecorded videos. We found that about three-fourths of task-related mid-STS neurons exhibited agent-dependent activity, most responding selectively or preferentially to the partner's action. At the population level, activities of these partner-type neurons were significantly greater under live-partner compared to videorecorded- partner task conditions. Furthermore, a subset of the partner-type neurons responded proactively when predictions about the partner's action were violated. This prediction error coding was specific to the action domain; almost none of the neurons signaled error in the prediction of reward. The present findings highlight unique roles of the macaque mid-STS at the singleneuron level and further delineate its functional parallels with the human TPJ in social cognitive processes associated with mentalizing.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Oguchi2021,

title = {Chemogenetic inactivation reveals the inhibitory control function of the prefronto-striatal pathway in the macaque brain},

author = {Mineki Oguchi and Shingo Tanaka and Xiaochuan Pan and Takefumi Kikusui and Keiko Moriya-Ito and Shigeki Kato and Kazuto Kobayashi and Masamichi Sakagami},

doi = {10.1038/s42003-021-02623-y},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Communications Biology},

volume = {4},

number = {1},

pages = {1088},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {The lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) has a strong monosynaptic connection with the caudate nucleus (CdN) of the striatum. Previous human MRI studies have suggested that this LPFC-CdN pathway plays an important role in inhibitory control and working memory. We aimed to validate the function of this pathway at a causal level by pathway-selective manipulation of neural activity in non-human primates. To this end, we trained macaque monkeys on a delayed oculomotor response task with reward asymmetry and expressed an inhibitory type of chemogenetic receptors selectively to LPFC neurons that project to the CdN. Ligand administration reduced the inhibitory control of impulsive behavior, as well as the task-related neuronal responses observed in the local field potentials from the LPFC and CdN. These results show that we successfully suppressed pathway-selective neural activity in the macaque brain, and the resulting behavioral changes suggest that the LPFC-CdN pathway is involved in inhibitory control.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Okazawa2021,

title = {Representational geometry of perceptual decisions in the monkey parietal cortex},

author = {Gouki Okazawa and Christina E. Hatch and Allan Mancoo and Christian K. Machens and Roozbeh Kiani},

doi = {10.1016/j.cell.2021.05.022},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Cell},

volume = {184},

number = {14},

pages = {3748–3761},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Lateral intraparietal (LIP) neurons represent formation of perceptual decisions involving eye movements. In circuit models for these decisions, neural ensembles that encode actions compete to form decisions. Consequently, representation and readout of the decision variables (DVs) are implemented similarly for decisions with identical competing actions, irrespective of input and task context differences. Further, DVs are encoded as partially potentiated action plans through balance of activity of action-selective ensembles. Here, we test those core principles. We show that in a novel face-discrimination task, LIP firing rates decrease with supporting evidence, contrary to conventional motion-discrimination tasks. These opposite response patterns arise from similar mechanisms in which decisions form along curved population-response manifolds misaligned with action representations. These manifolds rotate in state space based on context, indicating distinct optimal readouts for different tasks. We show similar manifolds in lateral and medial prefrontal cortices, suggesting similar representational geometry across decision-making circuits.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Orczyk2021,

title = {Comparison of scalp ERP to faces in macaques and humans},

author = {John Orczyk and Charles E. Schroeder and Ilana Y. Abeles and Manuel Gomez-Ramirez and Pamela D. Butler and Yoshinao Kajikawa},

doi = {10.3389/fnsys.2021.667611},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience},

volume = {15},

pages = {667611},

abstract = {Face recognition is an essential activity of social living, common to many primate species. Underlying processes in the brain have been investigated using various techniques and compared between species. Functional imaging studies have shown face-selective cortical regions and their degree of correspondence across species. However, the temporal dynamics of face processing, particularly processing speed, are likely different between them. Across sensory modalities activation of primary sensory cortices in macaque monkeys occurs at about 3/5 the latency of corresponding activation in humans, though this human simian difference may diminish or disappear in higher cortical regions. We recorded scalp event-related potentials (ERPs) to presentation of faces in macaques and estimated the peak latency of ERP components. Comparisons of latencies between macaques (112 ms) and humans (192 ms) suggested that the 3:5 ratio could be preserved in higher cognitive regions of face processing between those species.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Panichello2021,

title = {Shared mechanisms underlie the control of working memory and attention},

author = {Matthew F. Panichello and Timothy J. Buschman},

doi = {10.1038/s41586-021-03390-w},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature},

volume = {592},

number = {7855},

pages = {601–605},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Cognitive control guides behaviour by controlling what, when, and how information is represented in the brain1. For example, attention controls sensory processing; top-down signals from prefrontal and parietal cortex strengthen the representation of task-relevant stimuli2–4. A similar ‘selection' mechanism is thought to control the representations held ‘in mind'—in working memory5–10. Here we show that shared neural mechanisms underlie the selection of items from working memory and attention to sensory stimuli. We trained rhesus monkeys to switch between two tasks, either selecting one item from a set of items held in working memory or attending to one stimulus from a set of visual stimuli. Neural recordings showed that similar representations in prefrontal cortex encoded the control of both selection and attention, suggesting that prefrontal cortex acts as a domain-general controller. By contrast, both attention and selection were represented independently in parietal and visual cortex. Both selection and attention facilitated behaviour by enhancing and transforming the representation of the selected memory or attended stimulus. Specifically, during the selection task, memory items were initially represented in independent subspaces of neural activity in prefrontal cortex. Selecting an item caused its representation to transform from its own subspace to a new subspace used to guide behaviour. A similar transformation occurred for attention. Our results suggest that prefrontal cortex controls cognition by dynamically transforming representations to control what and when cognitive computations are engaged.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{PartoDezfouli2021a,

title = {A neural correlate of visual feature binding in primate lateral prefrontal cortex},

author = {Mohsen Parto Dezfouli and Philipp Schwedhelm and Michael Wibral and Stefan Treue and Mohammad Reza Daliri and Moein Esghaei},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117757},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {NeuroImage},

volume = {229},

pages = {117757},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {We effortlessly perceive visual objects as unified entities, despite the preferential encoding of their various visual features in separate cortical areas. A ‘binding' process is assumed to be required for creating this unified percept, but the underlying neural mechanism and specific brain areas are poorly understood. We investigated ‘feature-binding' across two feature dimensions, using a novel stimulus configuration, designed to disambiguate whether a given combination of color and motion direction is perceived as bound or unbound. In the “bound” condition, two behaviorally relevant features (color and motion) belong to the same object, while in the “unbound” condition they belong to different objects. We recorded local field potentials from the lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC) in macaque monkeys that actively monitored the different stimulus configurations. Our data show a neural representation of visual feature binding especially in the 4–12 Hz frequency band and a transmission of binding information between different lPFC neural subpopulations. This information is linked to the animal's reaction time, suggesting a behavioral relevance of the binding information. Together, our results document the involvement of the prefrontal cortex, targeted by the dorsal and ventral visual streams, in binding visual features from different dimensions, in a process that includes a dynamic modulation of low frequency inter-regional communication.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Peel2021,

title = {Frontal eye field inactivation alters the readout of superior colliculus activity for saccade generation in a task-dependent manner},

author = {Tyler R. Peel and Suryadeep Dash and Stephen G. Lomber and Brian D. Corneil},

doi = {10.1007/s10827-020-00760-7},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Computational Neuroscience},

volume = {49},

number = {3},

pages = {229–249},

publisher = {Journal of Computational Neuroscience},

abstract = {Saccades require a spatiotemporal transformation of activity between the intermediate layers of the superior colliculus (iSC) and downstream brainstem burst generator. The dynamic linear ensemble-coding model (Goossens and Van Opstal 2006) proposes that each iSC spike contributes a fixed mini-vector to saccade displacement. Although biologically-plausible, this model assumes cortical areas like the frontal eye fields (FEF) simply provide the saccadic goal to be executed by the iSC and brainstem burst generator. However, the FEF and iSC operate in unison during saccades, and a pathway from the FEF to the brainstem burst generator that bypasses the iSC exists. Here, we investigate the impact of large yet reversible inactivation of the FEF on iSC activity in the context of the model across four saccade tasks. We exploit the overlap of saccade vectors generated when the FEF is inactivated or not, comparing the number of iSC spikes for metrically-matched saccades. We found that the iSC emits fewer spikes for metrically-matched saccades during FEF inactivation. The decrease in spike count is task-dependent, with a greater decrease accompanying more cognitively-demanding saccades. Our results show that FEF integrity influences the readout of iSC activity in a task-dependent manner. We propose that the dynamic linear ensemble-coding model be modified so that FEF inactivation increases the gain of a readout parameter, effectively increasing the influence of a single iSC spike. We speculate that this modification could be instantiated by FEF and iSC pathways to the cerebellum that could modulate the excitability of the brainstem burst generator.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Peter2021,

title = {Stimulus-specific plasticity of macaque V1 spike rates and gamma},

author = {Alina Peter and Benjamin Johannes Stauch and Katharine Shapcott and Kleopatra Kouroupaki and Joscha Tapani Schmiedt and Liane Klein and Johanna Klon-Lipok and Jarrod Robert Dowdall and Marieke Louise Schölvinck and Martin Vinck and Michael Christoph Schmid and Pascal Fries},

doi = {10.1016/j.celrep.2021.110086},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Cell Reports},

volume = {37},

number = {10},

pages = {110086},

abstract = {When a visual stimulus is repeated, average neuronal responses typically decrease, yet they might maintain or even increase their impact through increased synchronization. Previous work has found that many repetitions of a grating lead to increasing gamma-band synchronization. Here, we show in awake macaque area V1 that both repetition-related reductions in firing rate and increases in gamma are specific to the repeated stimulus. These effects show some persistence on the timescale of minutes. Gamma increases are specific to the presented stimulus location. Further, repetition effects on gamma and on firing rates generalize to images of natural objects. These findings support the notion that gamma-band synchronization subserves the adaptive processing of repeated stimulus encounters.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Quinn2021,

title = {Decision-related feedback in visual cortex lacks spatial selectivity},

author = {Katrina R. Quinn and Lenka Seillier and Daniel A. Butts and Hendrikje Nienborg},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-021-24629-0},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {12},

pages = {4473},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Feedback in the brain is thought to convey contextual information that underlies our flexibility to perform different tasks. Empirical and computational work on the visual system suggests this is achieved by targeting task-relevant neuronal subpopulations. We combine two tasks, each resulting in selective modulation by feedback, to test whether the feedback reflected the combination of both selectivities. We used visual feature-discrimination specified at one of two possible locations and uncoupled the decision formation from motor plans to report it, while recording in macaque mid-level visual areas. Here we show that although the behavior is spatially selective, using only task-relevant information, modulation by decision-related feedback is spatially unselective. Population responses reveal similar stimulus-choice alignments irrespective of stimulus relevance. The results suggest a common mechanism across tasks, independent of the spatial selectivity these tasks demand. This may reflect biological constraints and facilitate generalization across tasks. Our findings also support a previously hypothesized link between feature-based attention and decision-related activity.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Raffi2021,

title = {Analysis of microsaccades during extended practice of a visual discrimination task in the macaque monkey},

author = {Milena Raffi and Andrea Meoni and Alessandro Piras},

doi = {10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135581},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Neuroscience Letters},

volume = {743},

pages = {135581},

publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},

abstract = {The spatial location indicated by a visual cue can bias microsaccades directions towards or away from the cue. Aim of this work was to evaluate the microsaccades characteristics during the monkey's training, investigating the relationship between a shift of attention and practice. The monkey was trained to press a lever at a target onset, then an expanding optic flow stimulus appeared to the right of the target. After a variable time delay, a visual cue appeared within the optic flow stimulus and the monkey had to release the lever in a maximum reaction time (RT) of 700 ms. In the control task no visual cue appeared and the monkey had to attend a change in the target color. Data were recorded in 9 months. Results revealed that the RTs at the control task changed significantly across time. The microsaccades directions were significantly clustered toward the visual cue, suggesting that the animal developed an attentional bias toward the visual space where the cue appeared. The microsaccades amplitude differed significantly across time. The microsaccades peak velocity differed significantly both across time and within the time delays, indicating that the monkey made faster microsaccades when it expected the cue to appear. The microsaccades number was significantly higher in the control task with respect to discrimination. The lack of change in microsaccades rate, duration, number and direction across time indicates that the experience acquired during practicing the task did not influence microsaccades generation.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Rezayat2021,

title = {Frontotemporal coordination predicts working memory performance and its local neural signatures},

author = {Ehsan Rezayat and Mohammad-Reza A. Dehaqani and Kelsey Clark and Zahra Bahmani and Tirin Moore and Behrad Noudoost},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-021-21151-1},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {12},

pages = {1103},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Neurons in some sensory areas reflect the content of working memory (WM) in their spiking activity. However, this spiking activity is seldom related to behavioral performance. We studied the responses of inferotemporal (IT) neurons, which exhibit object-selective activity, along with Frontal Eye Field (FEF) neurons, which exhibit spatially selective activity, during the delay period of an object WM task. Unlike the spiking activity and local field potentials (LFPs) within these areas, which were poor predictors of behavioral performance, the phase-locking of IT spikes and LFPs with the beta band of FEF LFPs robustly predicted successful WM maintenance. In addition, IT neurons exhibited greater object-selective persistent activity when their spikes were locked to the phase of FEF LFPs. These results reveal that the coordination between prefrontal and temporal cortex predicts the successful maintenance of visual information during WM.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Rothenhoefer2021,

title = {Rare rewards amplify dopamine responses},

author = {Kathryn M. Rothenhoefer and Tao Hong and Aydin Alikaya and William R. Stauffer},

doi = {10.1038/s41593-021-00807-7},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Neuroscience},

volume = {24},

number = {4},

pages = {465–469},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Dopamine prediction error responses are essential components of universal learning mechanisms. However, it is unknown whether individual dopamine neurons reflect the shape of reward distributions. Here, we used symmetrical distributions with differently weighted tails to investigate how the frequency of rewards and reward prediction errors influence dopamine signals. Rare rewards amplified dopamine responses, even when conventional prediction errors were identical, indicating a mechanism for learning the complexities of real-world incentives.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Roussy2021,

title = {Ketamine disrupts naturalistic coding of working memory in primate lateral prefrontal cortex networks},

author = {Megan Roussy and Rogelio Luna and Lyndon Duong and Benjamin Corrigan and Roberto A. Gulli and Ramon Nogueira and Rubén Moreno-Bote and Adam J. Sachs and Lena Palaniyappan and Julio C. Martinez-Trujillo},

doi = {10.1038/s41380-021-01082-5},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Molecular Psychiatry},

volume = {26},

pages = {6688–6703},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic drug, which has more recently emerged as a rapid-acting antidepressant. When acutely administered at subanesthetic doses, ketamine causes cognitive deficits like those observed in patients with schizophrenia, including impaired working memory. Although these effects have been linked to ketamine's action as an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, it is unclear how synaptic alterations translate into changes in brain microcircuit function that ultimately influence cognition. Here, we administered ketamine to rhesus monkeys during a spatial working memory task set in a naturalistic virtual environment. Ketamine induced transient working memory deficits while sparing perceptual and motor skills. Working memory deficits were accompanied by decreased responses of fast spiking inhibitory interneurons and increased responses of broad spiking excitatory neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortex. This translated into a decrease in neuronal tuning and information encoded by neuronal populations about remembered locations. Our results demonstrate that ketamine differentially affects neuronal types in the neocortex; thus, it perturbs the excitation inhibition balance within prefrontal microcircuits and ultimately leads to selective working memory deficits.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Schielke2021,

title = {N-methyl D-aspartate receptor hypofunction reduces visual contextual integration},

author = {Alexander Schielke and Bart Krekelberg},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Vision},

volume = {21},

number = {6},

pages = {1–11},

abstract = {Visual cognition is finely tuned to the elements in a scene but also relies on contextual integration to improve visual detection and discrimination. This integration is impaired in patients with schizophrenia. Studying impairments in contextual integration may lead to biomarkers of schizophrenia, tools to monitor disease progression, and, in animal models, insight into the underlying neural deficits. We developed a nonhuman primate model to test the hypothesis that hypofunction of the N-methyl D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) impairs contextual integration. Two male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)were trained to indicate which of two patterns on the screen had the highest contrast. One of these patterns appeared in isolation, and the other was surrounded by a high-contrast pattern. In humans, this high-contrast context is known to lead to an underestimation of contrast. This so-called Chubb illusion is thought to result from surround suppression, a key contextual integration mechanism. To test the involvement of NMDAR in this process, we compared animals' perceptual bias with and without intramuscular injections of a subanesthetic dose of the NMDAR antagonist ketamine. In the absence of ketamine, the animals reported a Chubb illusion - matching reports in healthy humans. Hence, monkeys - just like humans - perform visual contextual integration. This reaffirms the importance of nonhuman primates to help understand visual cognition. Injection of ketamine significantly reduced the strength of the illusion and thus impaired contextual integration. This supports the hypothesis that NMDAR hypofunction plays a causal role in specific behavioral impairments observed in schizophrenia.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Schmitt2021,

title = {Preattentive processing of visually guided self-motion in humans and monkeys},

author = {Constanze Schmitt and Jakob C. B. Schwenk and Adrian Schütz and Jan Churan and André Kaminiarz and Frank Bremmer},

doi = {10.1016/j.pneurobio.2021.102117},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Progress in Neurobiology},

volume = {205},

pages = {102117},

abstract = {The visually-based control of self-motion is a challenging task, requiring – if needed – immediate adjustments to keep on track. Accordingly, it would appear advantageous if the processing of self-motion direction (heading) was predictive, thereby accelerating the encoding of unexpected changes, and un-impaired by attentional load. We tested this hypothesis by recording EEG in humans and macaque monkeys with similar experimental protocols. Subjects viewed a random dot pattern simulating self-motion across a ground plane in an oddball EEG paradigm. Standard and deviant trials differed only in their simulated heading direction (forward-left vs. forward-right). Event-related potentials (ERPs) were compared in order to test for the occurrence of a visual mismatch negativity (vMMN), a component that reflects preattentive and likely also predictive processing of sensory stimuli. Analysis of the ERPs revealed signatures of a prediction mismatch for deviant stimuli in both humans and monkeys. In humans, a MMN was observed starting 110 ms after self-motion onset. In monkeys, peak response amplitudes following deviant stimuli were enhanced compared to the standard already 100 ms after self-motion onset. We consider our results strong evidence for a preattentive processing of visual self-motion information in humans and monkeys, allowing for ultrafast adjustments of their heading direction.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Selezneva2021,

title = {Comparison of pupil dilation responses to unexpected sounds in monkeys and humans},

author = {Elena Selezneva and Michael Brosch and Sanchit Rathi and T. Vighneshvel and Nicole Wetzel},

doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2021.754604},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Frontiers in Psychology},

volume = {12},

pages = {754604},

abstract = {Pupil dilation in response to unexpected stimuli has been well documented in human as well as in non-human primates; however, this phenomenon has not been systematically compared between the species. This analogy is also crucial for the role of non-human primates as an animal model to investigate neural mechanisms underlying the processing of unexpected stimuli and their evoked pupil dilation response. To assess this qualitatively, we used an auditory oddball paradigm in which we presented subjects a sequence of the same sounds followed by occasional deviants while we measured their evoked pupil dilation response (PDR). We used deviants (a frequency deviant, a pink noise burst, a monkey vocalization and a whistle sound) which differed in the spectral composition and in their ability to induce arousal from the standard. Most deviants elicited a significant pupil dilation in both species with decreased peak latency and increased peak amplitude in monkeys compared to humans. A temporal Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed two components underlying the PDRs in both species. The early component is likely associated to the parasympathetic nervous system and the late component to the sympathetic nervous system, respectively. Taken together, the present study demonstrates a qualitative similarity between PDRs to unexpected auditory stimuli in macaque and human subjects suggesting that macaques can be a suitable model for investigating the neuronal bases of pupil dilation. However, the quantitative differences in PDRs between species need to be investigated in further comparative studies.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Selvanayagam2021,

title = {Ketamine disrupts gaze patterns during face viewing in the common marmoset},

author = {Janahan Selvanayagam and Kevin D. Johnston and Raymond K. Wong and David Schaeffer and Stefan Everling},

doi = {10.1152/jn.00078.2021},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neurophysiology},

volume = {126},

number = {1},

pages = {330–339},

abstract = {Faces are stimuli of critical importance for primates. The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) is a promising model for investigations of face processing, as this species possesses oculomotor and face-processing networks resembling those of macaques and humans. Face processing is often disrupted in neuropsychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia (SZ), and thus, it is important to recapitulate underlying circuitry dysfunction preclinically. The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) noncompetitive antagonist ketamine has been used extensively to model the cognitive symptoms of SZ. Here, we investigated the effects of a subanesthetic dose of ketamine on oculomotor behavior in marmosets during face viewing. Four marmosets received systemic ketamine or saline injections while viewing phase-scrambled or intact videos of conspecifics' faces. To evaluate effects of ketamine on scan paths during face viewing, we identified regions of interest in each face video and classified locations of saccade onsets and landing positions within these areas. A preference for the snout over eye regions was observed following ketamine administration. In addition, regions in which saccades landed could be significantly predicted by saccade onset region in the saline but not the ketamine condition. Effects on saccade control were limited to an increase in saccade peak velocity in all conditions and a reduction in saccade amplitudes during viewing of scrambled videos. Thus, ketamine induced a significant disruption of scan paths during viewing of conspecific faces but limited effects on saccade motor control. These findings support the use of ketamine in marmosets for investigating changes in neural circuits underlying social cognition in neuropsychiatric disorders. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Face processing, an important social cognitive ability, is impaired in neuropsychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia. The highly social common marmoset model presents an opportunity to investigate these impairments. We administered subanesthetic doses of ketamine to marmosets to model the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. We observed a disruption of scan paths during viewing of conspecifics' faces. These findings support the use of ketamine in marmosets as a model for investigating social cognition in neuropsychiatric disorders.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Snyder2021,

title = {A stable population code for attention in prefrontal cortex leads a dynamic attention code in visual cortex},

author = {Adam C. Snyder and Byron M. Yu and Matthew A. Smith},

doi = {10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0608-21.2021},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neuroscience},

volume = {41},

number = {44},

pages = {9163–9176},

abstract = {Attention often requires maintaining a stable mental state over time while simultaneously improving perceptual sensitivity. These requirements place conflicting demands on neural populations, as sensitivity implies a robust response to perturbation by incoming stimuli, which is antithetical to stability. Functional specialization of cortical areas provides one potential mechanism to resolve this conflict. We reasoned that attention signals in executive control areas might be highly stable over time, reflecting maintenance of the cognitive state, thereby freeing up sensory areas to be more sensitive to sensory input (i.e., unstable), which would be reflected by more dynamic attention signals in those areas. To test these predictions, we simultaneously recorded neural populations in prefrontal cortex (PFC) and visual cortical area V4 in rhesus macaque monkeys performing an endogenous spatial selective attention task. Using a decoding approach, we found that the neural code for attention states in PFC was substantially more stable over time compared with the attention code in V4 on a moment-bymoment basis, in line with our guiding thesis. Moreover, attention signals in PFC predicted the future attention state of V4 better than vice versa, consistent with a top-down role for PFC in attention. These results suggest a functional specialization of attention mechanisms across cortical areas with a division of labor. PFC signals the cognitive state and maintains this state stably over time, whereas V4 responds to sensory input in a manner dynamically modulated by that cognitive state.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Takakuwa2021,

title = {Contribution of the pulvinar and lateral geniculate nucleus to the control of visually guided saccades in blindsight monkeys},

author = {Norihiro Takakuwa and Kaoru Isa and Hirotaka Onoe and Jun Takahashi and Tadashi Isa},

doi = {10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2293-20.2020},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neuroscience},

volume = {41},

number = {8},

pages = {1755–1768},

abstract = {After damage to the primary visual cortex (V1), conscious vision is impaired. However, some patients can respond to visual stimuli presented in their lesion-affected visual field using residual visual pathways bypassing V1. This phenomenon is called “blindsight.” Many studies have tried to identify the brain regions responsible for blindsight, and the pulvinar and/or lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) are suggested to play key roles as the thalamic relay of visual signals. However, there are critical problems regarding these preceding studies in that subjects with different sized lesions and periods of time after lesioning were investigated; furthermore, the ability of blindsight was assessed with different measures. In this study, we used double dissociation to clarify the roles of the pulvinar and LGN by pharmacological inactivation of each region and investigated the effects in a simple task with visually guided saccades (VGSs) using monkeys with a unilateral V1 lesion, by which nearly all of the contralesional visual field was affected. Inactivating either the ipsilesional pulvinar or LGN impaired VGS toward a visual stimulus in the affected field. In contrast, inactivation of the contralesional pulvinar had no clear effect, but inactivation of the contralesional LGN impaired VGS to the intact visual field. These results suggest that the pulvinar and LGN play key roles in performing the simple VGS task after V1 lesioning, and that the visuomotor functions of blindsight monkeys were supported by plastic changes in the visual pathway involving the pulvinar, which emerged after V1 lesioning.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Takeya2021,

title = {Spontaneous grouping of saccade timing in the presence of task-irrelevant objects},

author = {Ryuji Takeya and Shuntaro Nakamura and Masaki Tanaka},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0248530},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {PLoS ONE},

volume = {16},

number = {3},

pages = {e0248530},

abstract = {Sequential movements are often grouped into several chunks, as evidenced by the modulation of the timing of each elemental movement. Even during synchronized tapping with a metronome, we sometimes feel subjective accent for every few taps. To examine whether motor segmentation emerges during synchronized movements, we trained monkeys to generate a series of predictive saccades synchronized with visual stimuli which sequentially appeared for a fixed interval (400 or 600 ms) at six circularly arranged landmark locations. We found two types of motor segmentations that featured periodic modulation of saccade timing. First, the intersaccadic interval (ISI) depended on the target location and saccade direction, indicating that particular combinations of saccades were integrated into motor chunks. Second, when a task-irrelevant rectangular contour surrounding three landmarks ("inducer") was presented, the ISI significantly modulated depending on the relative target location to the inducer. All patterns of individual differences seen in monkeys were also observed in humans. Importantly, the effects of the inducer greatly decreased or disappeared when the animals were trained to generate only reactive saccades (latency >100 ms), indicating that the motor segmentation may depend on the internal rhythms. Thus, our results demonstrate two types of motor segmentation during synchronized movements: one is related to the hierarchical organization of sequential movements and the other is related to the spontaneous grouping of rhythmic events. This experimental paradigm can be used to investigate the underlying neural mechanism of temporal grouping during rhythm production.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Traner2021,

title = {How the value of the environment controls persistence in visual search},

author = {Michael R. Traner and Ethan S. Bromberg-Martin and Ilya E. Monosov},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009662},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {PLoS Computational Biology},

volume = {17},

number = {12},

pages = {e1009662},

abstract = {Classic foraging theory predicts that humans and animals aim to gain maximum reward per unit time. However, in standard instrumental conditioning tasks individuals adopt an apparently suboptimal strategy: they respond slowly when the expected value is low. This reward-related bias is often explained as reduced motivation in response to low rewards. Here we present evidence this behavior is associated with a complementary increased motivation to search the environment for alternatives. We trained monkeys to search for reward-related visual targets in environments with different values. We found that the reward-related bias scaled with environment value, was consistent with persistent searching after the target was already found, and was associated with increased exploratory gaze to objects in the environment. A novel computational model of foraging suggests that this search strategy could be adaptive in naturalistic settings where both environments and the objects within them provide partial information about hidden, uncertain rewards.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Umakantha2021,

title = {Bridging neuronal correlations and dimensionality reduction},

author = {Akash Umakantha and Rudina Morina and Benjamin R. Cowley and Adam C. Snyder and Matthew A. Smith and Byron M. Yu},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2021.06.028},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {109},

number = {17},

pages = {2740–2754.e12},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Two commonly used approaches to study interactions among neurons are spike count correlation, which describes pairs of neurons, and dimensionality reduction, applied to a population of neurons. Although both approaches have been used to study trial-to-trial neuronal variability correlated among neurons, they are often used in isolation and have not been directly related. We first established concrete mathematical and empirical relationships between pairwise correlation and metrics of population-wide covariability based on dimensionality reduction. Applying these insights to macaque V4 population recordings, we found that the previously reported decrease in mean pairwise correlation associated with attention stemmed from three distinct changes in population-wide covariability. Overall, our work builds the intuition and formalism to bridge between pairwise correlation and population-wide covariability and presents a cautionary tale about the inferences one can make about population activity by using a single statistic, whether it be mean pairwise correlation or dimensionality.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Decramer2021,

title = {Temporal dynamics of neural activity in macaque frontal cortex assessed with large-scale recordings},

author = {Thomas Decramer and Elsie Premereur and Irene Caprara and Tom Theys and Peter Janssen},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118088},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {NeuroImage},

volume = {236},

pages = {118088},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {The cortical network controlling the arm and hand when grasping objects consists of several areas in parietal and frontal cortex. Recently, more anterior prefrontal areas have also been implicated in object grasping, but their exact role is currently unclear. To investigate the neuronal encoding of objects during grasping in these prefrontal regions and their relation with other cortical areas of the grasping network, we performed large-scale recordings (more than 2000 responsive sites) in frontal cortex of monkeys during a saccade-reach-grasp task. When an object appeared in peripheral vision, the first burst of activity emerged in prearcuate areas (the FEF and area 45B), followed by dorsal and ventral premotor cortex, and a buildup of activity in primary motor cortex. After the saccade, prearcuate activity remained elevated while primary motor and premotor activity rose in anticipation of the upcoming arm and hand movement. Remarkably, a large number of premotor and prearcuate sites responded when the object appeared in peripheral vision and remained active when the object came into foveal vision. Thus, prearcuate and premotor areas continuously encode object information when directing gaze and grasping objects.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Dougherty2021,

title = {Binocular suppression in the macaque lateral geniculate nucleus reveals early competitive interactions between the eyes},

author = {Kacie Dougherty and Brock M. Carlson and Michele A. Cox and Jacob A. Westerberg and Wolf Zinke and Michael C. Schmid and Paul R. Martin and Alexander Maier},

doi = {10.1523/ENEURO.0364-20.2020},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {eNeuro},

volume = {8},

number = {2},

pages = {1–12},

abstract = {The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the dorsal thalamus is the primary recipient of the two eyes' outputs. Most LGN neurons are monocular in that they are activated by visual stimulation through only one (dominant) eye. However, there are both intrinsic connections and inputs from binocular structures to the LGN that could provide these neurons with signals originating from the other (non-dominant) eye. Indeed, previous work introducing luminance differences across the eyes or using a single-contrast stimulus showed binocular modulation for single unit activity in anesthetized macaques and multiunit activity in awake macaques. Here, we sought to determine the influence of contrast viewed by both the non-dominant and dominant eyes on LGN single-unit responses in awake macaques. To do this, we adjusted each eye's signal strength by independently varying the contrast of stimuli presented to the two eyes. Specifically, we recorded LGN single unit spiking activity in two awake macaques while they viewed drifting gratings of varying contrast. We found that LGN neurons of all types [parvocellular (P), magno-cellular (M), and koniocellular (K)] were significantly suppressed when stimuli were presented at low contrast to the dominant eye and at high contrast to the non-dominant eye. Further, the inputs of the two eyes showed antagonistic interaction, whereby the magnitude of binocular suppression diminished with high contrast in the dominant eye, or low contrast in the non-dominant eye. These results suggest that the LGN represents a site of precortical binocular processing involved in resolving discrepant contrast differences between the eyes.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Eradath2021,

title = {A causal role for the pulvinar in coordinating task-independent cortico–cortical interactions},

author = {Manoj K. Eradath and Mark A. Pinsk and Sabine Kastner},

doi = {10.1002/cne.25193},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Comparative Neurology},

volume = {529},

number = {17},

pages = {3772–3784},

abstract = {The pulvinar is the largest nucleus in the primate thalamus and has topographically organized connections with multiple cortical areas, thereby forming extensive cortico-pulvino-cortical input–output loops. Neurophysiological studies have suggested a role for these transthalamic pathways in regulating information transmission between cortical areas. However, evidence for a causal role of the pulvinar in regulating cortico–cortical interactions is sparse and it is not known whether pulvinar's influences on cortical networks are task-dependent or, alternatively, reflect more basic large-scale network properties that maintain functional connectivity across networks regardless of active task demands. In the current study, under passive viewing conditions, we conducted simultaneous electrophysiological recordings from ventral (area V4) and dorsal (lateral intraparietal area [LIP]) nodes of macaque visual system, while reversibly inactivating the dorsal part of the lateral pulvinar (dPL), which shares common anatomical connectivity with V4 and LIP, to probe a causal role of the pulvinar. Our results show a significant reduction in local field potential phase coherence between LIP and V4 in low frequencies (4–15 Hz) following muscimol injection into dPL. At the local level, no significant changes in firing rates or LFP power were observed in LIP or in V4 following dPL inactivation. Synchronization between pulvinar spikes and cortical LFP phase decreased in low frequencies (4–15 Hz) both in LIP and V4, while the low frequency synchronization between LIP spikes and pulvinar phase increased. These results indicate a causal role for pulvinar in synchronizing neural activity between interconnected cortical nodes of a large-scale network, even in the absence of an active task state.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Fabbrini2021a,

title = {Within- and between-hemifield generalization of repetition suppression in inferior temporal cortex},

author = {Francesco Fabbrini and Rufin Vogels},

doi = {10.1152/jn.00361.2020},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neurophysiology},

volume = {125},

number = {1},

pages = {120–139},

abstract = {The decrease in response with stimulus repetition is a common property observed in many sensory brain areas. This repetition suppression (RS) is ubiquitous in neurons of macaque inferior temporal (IT) cortex, the end-stage of the ventral visual pathway. The neural mechanisms of RS in IT are still unclear, and one possibility is that it is inherited from areas upstream to IT that show also RS. Since neurons in IT have larger receptive fields compared with earlier visual areas, we examined the inheritance hypothesis by presenting adapter and test stimuli at widely different spatial locations along both vertical and horizontal meridians and across hemifields. RS was present for distances between adapter and test stimuli up to 22° and when the two stimuli were presented in different hemifields. Also, we examined the position tolerance of the stimulus selectivity of adaptation by comparing the responses to a test stimulus following the same (repetition trial) or a different (alternation trial) adapter at a position different from the test stimulus. Stimulus-selective adaptation was still present and consistently stronger in the later phase of the response for distances up to 18°. Finally, we observed stimulus-selective adaptation in repetition trials even without a measurable excitatory response to the adapter stimulus. To accommodate these and previous data, we propose that at least part of the stimulusselective adaptation in IT is based on short-term plasticity mechanisms within IT and/or reflects top-down activity from areas downstream to IT.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Fabbrini2021,

title = {Within- and between-hemifields generalization of repetition suppression in inferior temporal cortex},

author = {Francesco Fabbrini and Rufin Vogels},

doi = {10.1152/jn.00361.2020},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neurophysiology},

volume = {125},

number = {1},

pages = {1–20},

abstract = {The decrease in response with stimulus repetition is a common property observed in many sensory brain areas. This repetition suppression (RS) is ubiquitous in neurons of macaque inferior temporal (IT) cortex, the end-stage of the ventral visual pathway. The neural mechanisms of RS in IT are still unclear, and one possibility is that it is inherited from areas upstream to IT that show also RS. Since neurons in IT have larger receptive fields compared to earlier visual areas, we examined the inheritance hypothesis by presenting adapter and test stimuli at widely different spatial locations along both vertical and horizontal meridians, and across hemifields. RS was present for distances between adapter and test stimuli up to 22°, and when the two stimuli were presented in different hemifields. Also, we examined the position tolerance of the stimulus selectivity of adaptation by comparing the responses to a test stimulus following the same (repetition trial) or a different adapter (alternation trial) at a different position than the test stimulus. Stimulus-selective adaptation was still present and consistently stronger in the later phase of the response for distances up to 18°. Finally, we observed stimulus-selective adaptation in repetition trials even without a measurable excitatory response to the adapter stimulus. To accommodate these and previous data, we propose that at least part of the stimulus-selective adaptation in IT is based on short-term plasticity mechanisms within IT and/or reflects top-down activity from areas downstream to IT.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Festa2021,

title = {Neuronal variability reflects probabilistic inference tuned to natural image statistics},

author = {Dylan Festa and Amir Aschner and Aida Davila and Adam Kohn and Ruben Coen-Cagli},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-021-23838-x},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {12},

pages = {3635},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Neuronal activity in sensory cortex fluctuates over time and across repetitions of the same input. This variability is often considered detrimental to neural coding. The theory of neural sampling proposes instead that variability encodes the uncertainty of perceptual inferences. In primary visual cortex (V1), modulation of variability by sensory and non-sensory factors supports this view. However, it is unknown whether V1 variability reflects the statistical structure of visual inputs, as would be required for inferences correctly tuned to the statistics of the natural environment. Here we combine analysis of image statistics and recordings in macaque V1 to show that probabilistic inference tuned to natural image statistics explains the widely observed dependence between spike count variance and mean, and the modulation of V1 activity and variability by spatial context in images. Our results show that the properties of a basic aspect of cortical responses—their variability—can be explained by a probabilistic representation tuned to naturalistic inputs.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Fiebelkorn2021,

title = {Spike timing in the attention network predicts behavioral outcome prior to target selection},

author = {Ian C. Fiebelkorn and Sabine Kastner},

doi = {10.1016/j.neuron.2020.09.039},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Neuron},

volume = {109},

number = {1},

pages = {177–188},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {There has been little evidence linking changes in spiking activity that occur prior to a spatially predictable target (i.e., prior to target selection) to behavioral outcomes, despite such preparatory changes being widely assumed to enhance the sensitivity of sensory processing. We simultaneously recorded from frontal and parietal nodes of the attention network while macaques performed a spatial cueing task. When anticipating a spatially predictable target, different patterns of coupling between spike timing and the oscillatory phase in local field potentials—but not changes in spike rate—were predictive of different behavioral outcomes. These behaviorally relevant differences in local and between-region synchronization occurred among specific cell types that were defined based on their sensory and motor properties, providing insight into the mechanisms underlying enhanced sensory processing prior to target selection. We propose that these changes in neural synchronization reflect differential anticipatory engagement of the network nodes and functional units that shape attention-related sampling.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ghosh2021,

title = {Single trial neuronal activity dynamics of attentional intensity in monkey visual area V4},

author = {Supriya Ghosh and John H. R. Maunsell},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-021-22281-2},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {12},

pages = {2003},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Understanding how activity of visual neurons represents distinct components of attention and their dynamics that account for improved visual performance remains elusive because single-unit experiments have not isolated the intensive aspect of attention from attentional selectivity. We isolated attentional intensity and its single trial dynamics as determined by spatially non-selective attentional performance in an orientation discrimination task while recording from neurons in monkey visual area V4. We found that attentional intensity is a distinct cognitive signal that can be distinguished from spatial selectivity, reward expectations and motor actions. V4 spiking on single trials encodes a combination of sensory and cognitive signals on different time scales. Attentional intensity and the detection of behaviorally relevant sensory signals are well represented, but immediate reward expectation and behavioral choices are poorly represented in V4 spiking. These results provide a detailed representation of perceptual and cognitive signals in V4 that are crucial for attentional performance.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hennig2021,

title = {Learning is shaped by abrupt changes in neural engagement},

author = {Jay A. Hennig and Emily R. Oby and Matthew D. Golub and Lindsay A. Bahureksa and Patrick T. Sadtler and Kristin M. Quick and Stephen I. Ryu and Elizabeth C. Tyler-Kabara and Aaron P. Batista and Steven M. Chase and Byron M. Yu},

doi = {10.1038/s41593-021-00822-8},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Nature Neuroscience},

volume = {24},

number = {5},

pages = {727–736},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Internal states such as arousal, attention and motivation modulate brain-wide neural activity, but how these processes interact with learning is not well understood. During learning, the brain modifies its neural activity to improve behavior. How do internal states affect this process? Using a brain–computer interface learning paradigm in monkeys, we identified large, abrupt fluctuations in neural population activity in motor cortex indicative of arousal-like internal state changes, which we term ‘neural engagement.' In a brain–computer interface, the causal relationship between neural activity and behavior is known, allowing us to understand how neural engagement impacted behavioral performance for different task goals. We observed stereotyped changes in neural engagement that occurred regardless of how they impacted performance. This allowed us to predict how quickly different task goals were learned. These results suggest that changes in internal states, even those seemingly unrelated to goal-seeking behavior, can systematically influence how behavior improves with learning.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Herpers2021,

title = {Stimulation of the ventral tegmental area induces visual cortical plasticity at the neuronal level},

author = {Jerome Herpers and John T. Arsenault and Wim Vanduffel and Rufin Vogels},

doi = {10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109998},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Cell Reports},

volume = {37},

number = {6},

pages = {109998},

publisher = {ElsevierCompany.},

abstract = {fMRI studies have shown that pairing a task-irrelevant visual feature with electrical micro-stimulation of the ventral tegmental area (VTA-EM) is sufficient to increase the sensory cortical representation of the paired feature and to improve perceptual performance. However, since fMRI provides an indirect measure of neural activity, the neural response changes underlying the fMRI activations are unknown. Here, we pair a task-irrelevant grating orientation with VTA-EM while attention is directed to a difficult orthogonal task. We examine the changes in neural response properties in macaques by recording spiking activity in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, the locus of fMRI-defined plasticity in previous studies. We observe a relative increase in mean spike rate and preference for the VTA-EM paired orientation compared to an unpaired orientation, which is unrelated to attention. These results demonstrate that VTA-EM-stimulus pairing is sufficient to induce sensory cortical plasticity at the spiking level in nonhuman primates.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Jacob2021,

title = {A naturalistic environment to study visual cognition in unrestrained monkeys},

author = {Georgin Jacob and Harish Katti and Thomas Cherian and Jhilik Das and K. A. Zhivago and S. P. Arun},

doi = {10.7554/eLife.63816},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {10},

pages = {1–30},

abstract = {Macaque monkeys are widely used to study vision. In the traditional approach, monkeys are brought into a lab to perform visual tasks while they are restrained to obtain stable eye tracking and neural recordings. Here, we describe a novel environment to study visual cognition in a more natural setting as well as other natural and social behaviors. We designed a naturalistic environment with an integrated touchscreen workstation that enables high-quality eye tracking in unrestrained monkeys. We used this environment to train monkeys on a challenging same-different task. We also show that this environment can reveal interesting novel social behaviors. As proof of concept, we show that two naïve monkeys were able to learn this complex task through a combination of socially observing trained monkeys and through solo trialand-error. We propose that such naturalistic environments can be used to rigorously study visual cognition as well as other natural and social behaviors in freely moving monkeys.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Rajalingham2020,

title = {The inferior temporal cortex is a potential cortical precursor of orthographic processing in untrained monkeys},

author = {Rishi Rajalingham and Kohitij Kar and Sachi Sanghavi and Stanislas Dehaene and James J. DiCarlo},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-020-17714-3},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-12-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {11},

pages = {3886},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {The ability to recognize written letter strings is foundational to human reading, but the underlying neuronal mechanisms remain largely unknown. Recent behavioral research in baboons suggests that non-human primates may provide an opportunity to investigate this question. We recorded the activity of hundreds of neurons in V4 and the inferior temporal cortex (IT) while naïve macaque monkeys passively viewed images of letters, English words and non-word strings, and tested the capacity of those neuronal representations to support a battery of orthographic processing tasks. We found that simple linear read-outs of IT (but not V4) population responses achieved high performance on all tested tasks, even matching the performance and error patterns of baboons on word classification. These results show that the IT cortex of untrained primates can serve as a precursor of orthographic processing, suggesting that the acquisition of reading in humans relies on the recycling of a brain network evolved for other visual functions.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Westerberg2020,

title = {Performance monitoring during visual priming},

author = {Jacob A. Westerberg and Alexander Maier and Geoffrey F. Woodman and Jeffrey D. Schall},

doi = {10.1162/jocn_a_01499},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-11-01},

journal = {Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience},

volume = {32},

number = {3},

pages = {515–526},

publisher = {MIT Press - Journals},

abstract = {Repetitive performance of single-feature (efficient or popout) visual search improves RTs and accuracy. This phenomenon, known as priming of pop-out, has been demonstrated in both humans and macaque monkeys. We investigated the relationship between performance monitoring and priming of pop-out. Neuronal activity in the supplementary eye field (SEF) contributes to performance monitoring and to the generation of performance monitoring signals in the EEG. To determine whether priming depends on performance monitoring, we investigated spiking activity in SEF as well as the concurrent EEG of two monkeys performing a priming of pop-out task. We found that SEF spiking did not modulate with priming. Surprisingly, concurrent EEG did covary with priming. Together, these results suggest that performance monitoring contributes to priming of pop-out. However, this performance monitoring seems not mediated by SEF. This dissociation suggests that EEG indices of performance monitoring arise from multiple, functionally distinct neural generators.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Doucet2020,

title = {Modulation of local field potentials and neuronal activity in primate hippocampus during saccades},

author = {Guillaume Doucet and Roberto A. Gulli and Benjamin W. Corrigan and Lyndon R. Duong and Julio C. Martinez-Trujillo},

doi = {10.1002/hipo.23140},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-07-01},

journal = {Hippocampus},

volume = {30},

number = {3},

pages = {192–209},

publisher = {Wiley},

abstract = {Primates use saccades to gather information about objects and their relative spatial arrangement, a process essential for visual perception and memory. It has been proposed that signals linked to saccades reset the phase of local field potential (LFP) oscillations in the hippocampus, providing a temporal window for visual signals to activate neurons in this region and influence memory formation. We investigated this issue by measuring hippocampal LFPs and spikes in two macaques performing different tasks with unconstrained eye movements. We found that LFP phase clustering (PC) in the alpha/beta (8–16 Hz) frequencies followed foveation onsets, while PC in frequencies lower than 8 Hz followed spontaneous saccades, even on a homogeneous background. Saccades to a solid grey background were not followed by increases in local neuronal firing, whereas saccades toward appearing visual stimuli were. Finally, saccade parameters correlated with LFPs phase and amplitude: saccade direction correlated with delta (≤4 Hz) phase, and saccade amplitude with theta (4–8 Hz) power. Our results suggest that signals linked to saccades reach the hippocampus, producing synchronization of delta/theta LFPs without a general activation of local neurons. Moreover, some visual inputs co-occurring with saccades produce LFP synchronization in the alpha/beta bands and elevated neuronal firing. Our findings support the hypothesis that saccade-related signals enact sensory input-dependent plasticity and therefore memory formation in the primate hippocampus.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{DalMonte2020,

title = {Specialized medial prefrontal–amygdala coordination in other-regarding decision preference},

author = {Olga Dal Monte and Cheng C. J. Chu and Nicholas A. Fagan and Steve W. C. Chang},

doi = {10.1038/s41593-020-0593-y},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Nature Neuroscience},

volume = {23},

number = {4},

pages = {565–574},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Social behaviors recruit multiple cognitive operations that require interactions between cortical and subcortical brain regions. Interareal synchrony may facilitate such interactions between cortical and subcortical neural populations. However, it remains unknown how neurons from different nodes in the social brain network interact during social decision-making. Here we investigated oscillatory neuronal interactions between the basolateral amygdala and the rostral anterior cingulate gyrus of the medial prefrontal cortex while monkeys expressed context-dependent positive or negative other-regarding preference (ORP), whereby decisions affected the reward received by another monkey. Synchronization between the two nodes was enhanced for a positive ORP but suppressed for a negative ORP. These interactions occurred in beta and gamma frequency bands depending on the area contributing the spikes, exhibited a specific directionality of information flow associated with a positive ORP and could be used to decode social decisions. These findings suggest that specialized coordination in the medial prefrontal–amygdala network underlies social-decision preferences.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ebitz2020,

title = {Rules warp feature encoding in decision-making circuits},

author = {R. Becket Ebitz and Jiaxin Cindy Tu and Benjamin Y. Hayden},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pbio.3000951},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {PLOS Biology},

volume = {18},

number = {11},

pages = {1–38},

abstract = {We have the capacity to follow arbitrary stimulus–response rules, meaning simple policies that guide our behavior. Rule identity is broadly encoded across decision-making circuits, but there are less data on how rules shape the computations that lead to choices. One idea is that rules could simplify these computations. When we follow a rule, there is no need to encode or compute information that is irrelevant to the current rule, which could reduce the metabolic or energetic demands of decision-making. However, it is not clear if the brain can actually take advantage of this computational simplicity. To test this idea, we recorded from neurons in 3 regions linked to decision-making, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), ventral striatum (VS), and dorsal striatum (DS), while macaques performed a rule-based decision-making task. Rule-based decisions were identified via modeling rules as the latent causes of decisions. This left us with a set of physically identical choices that maximized reward and information, but could not be explained by simple stimulus–response rules. Contrasting rule-based choices with these residual choices revealed that following rules (1) decreased the energetic cost of decision-making; and (2) expanded rule-relevant coding dimensions and compressed rule-irrelevant ones. Together, these results suggest that we use rules, in part, because they reduce the costs of decision-making through a distributed representational warping in decision-making circuits.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Errington2020,

title = {Dissociation of medial frontal β-bursts and executive control},

author = {Steven P. Errington and Geoffrey F. Woodman and Jeffrey D. Schall},

doi = {10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2072-20.2020},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neuroscience},

volume = {40},

number = {48},

pages = {9272–9282},

abstract = {The neural mechanisms of executive and motor control concern both basic researchers and clinicians. In human studies, preparation and cancellation of movements are accompanied by changes in the β-frequency band (15-29 Hz) of electroencephalogram (EEG). Previous studies with human participants performing stop signal (countermanding) tasks have described reduced frequency of transient β-bursts over sensorimotor cortical areas before movement initiation and increased β-bursting over medial frontal areas with movement cancellation. This modulation has been interpreted as contributing to the trial-by-trial control of behavior. We performed identical analyses of EEG recorded over the frontal lobe of macaque monkeys (one male, one female) performing a saccade countermanding task. While we replicate the occurrence and modulation of β-bursts associated with initiation and cancellation of saccades, we found that β-bursts occur too infrequently to account for the observed stopping behavior. We also found β-bursts were more common after errors, but their incidence was unrelated to response time (RT) adaptation. These results demonstrate the homology of this EEG signature between humans and macaques but raise questions about the current interpretation of β band functional significance.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Foroushani2020,

title = {Spatial resolution of local field potential signals in macaque V4},

author = {Armin Najarpour Foroushani and Sujaya Neupane and Pablo De Heredia Pastor and Christopher C. Pack and Mohamad Sawan},

doi = {10.1088/1741-2552/ab7321},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neural Engineering},

volume = {17},

number = {2},

pages = {1–23},

publisher = {IOP Publishing},

abstract = {Objective. An important challenge for the development of cortical visual prostheses is to generate spatially localized percepts of light, using artificial stimulation. Such percepts are called phosphenes, and the goal of prosthetic applications is to generate a pattern of phosphenes that matches the structure of the retinal image. A preliminary step in this process is to understand how the spatial positions of phosphene-like visual stimuli are encoded in the distributed activity of cortical neurons. The spatial resolution with which the distributed responses discriminate positions puts a limit on the capability of visual prosthesis devices to induce phosphenes at multiple positions. While most previous prosthetic devices have targeted the primary visual cortex, the extrastriate cortex has the advantage of covering a large part of the visual field with a smaller amount of cortical tissue, providing the possibility of a more compact implant. Here, we studied how well ensembles of Local Field Potentials (LFPs) and Multiunit activity (MUA) responses from extrastriate cortical visual area V4 of a behaving macaque monkey can discriminate between two-dimensional spatial positions. Approach. We used support vector machines (SVM) to determine the capabilities of LFPs and MUA to discriminate responses to phosphene-like stimuli (probes) at different spatial separations. We proposed a selection strategy based on the combined responses of multiple electrodes and used the linear learning weights to find the minimum number of electrodes for fine and coarse discriminations. We also measured the contribution of correlated trial-to-trial variability in the responses to the discrimination performance for MUA and LFP. Main results. We found that despite the large receptive field sizes in V4, the combined responses from multiple sites, whether MUA or LFP, are capable of fine and coarse discrimination of positions. Our electrode selection procedure significantly increased discrimination performance while reducing the required number of electrodes. Analysis of noise correlations in MUA and LFP responses showed that noise correlations in LFPs carry more information about spatial positions. Significance. This study determined the coding strategy for fine discrimination, suggesting that spatial positions could be well localized with patterned stimulation in extrastriate area V4. It also provides a novel approach to build a compact prosthesis with relatively few electrodes, which has the potential advantage of reducing tissue damage in real applications.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Froesel2020,

title = {Automated video-based heart rate tracking for the anesthetized and behaving monkey},

author = {Mathilda Froesel and Quentin Goudard and Marc Hauser and Maëva Gacoin and Suliann Ben Hamed},

doi = {10.1038/s41598-020-74954-5},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Scientific Reports},

volume = {10},

pages = {17940},

publisher = {Nature Publishing Group UK},

abstract = {Heart rate (HR) is extremely valuable in the study of complex behaviours and their physiological correlates in non-human primates. However, collecting this information is often challenging, involving either invasive implants or tedious behavioural training. In the present study, we implement a Eulerian video magnification (EVM) heart tracking method in the macaque monkey combined with wavelet transform. This is based on a measure of image to image fluctuations in skin reflectance due to changes in blood influx. We show a strong temporal coherence and amplitude match between EVM-based heart tracking and ground truth ECG, from both color (RGB) and infrared (IR) videos, in anesthetized macaques, to a level comparable to what can be achieved in humans. We further show that this method allows to identify consistent HR changes following the presentation of conspecific emotional voices or faces. EVM is used to extract HR in humans but has never been applied to non-human primates. Video photoplethysmography allows to extract awake macaques HR from RGB videos. In contrast, our method allows to extract awake macaques HR from both RGB and IR videos and is particularly resilient to the head motion that can be observed in awake behaving monkeys. Overall, we believe that this method can be generalized as a tool to track HR of the awake behaving monkey, for ethological, behavioural, neuroscience or welfare purposes.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Gulli2020,

title = {Context-dependent representations of objects and space in the primate hippocampus during virtual navigation},

author = {Roberto A. Gulli and Lyndon R. Duong and Benjamin W. Corrigan and Guillaume Doucet and Sylvain Williams and Stefano Fusi and Julio C. Martinez-Trujillo},

doi = {10.1038/s41593-019-0548-3},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Nature Neuroscience},

volume = {23},

number = {1},

pages = {103–112},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {The hippocampus is implicated in associative memory and spatial navigation. To investigate how these functions are mixed in the hippocampus, we recorded from single hippocampal neurons in macaque monkeys navigating a virtual maze during a foraging task and a context–object associative memory task. During both tasks, single neurons encoded information about spatial position; a linear classifier also decoded position. However, the population code for space did not generalize across tasks, particularly where stimuli relevant to the associative memory task appeared. Single-neuron and population-level analyses revealed that cross-task changes were due to selectivity for nonspatial features of the associative memory task when they were visually available (perceptual coding) and following their disappearance (mnemonic coding). Our results show that neurons in the primate hippocampus nonlinearly mix information about space and nonspatial elements of the environment in a task-dependent manner; this efficient code flexibly represents unique perceptual experiences and correspondent memories.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hafed2020,

title = {Gaze direction as equilibrium: More evidence from spatial and temporal aspects of small-saccade triggering in the rhesus macaque monkey},

author = {Ziad M. Hafed and Laurent Goffart},

doi = {10.1152/JN.00588.2019},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neurophysiology},

volume = {123},

number = {1},

pages = {308–322},

abstract = {Rigorous behavioral studies made in human subjects have shown that small-eccentricity target displacements are associated with increased saccadic reaction times, but the reasons for this remain unclear. Before characterizing the neurophysiological foundations underlying this relationship between the spatial and temporal aspects of saccades, we tested the triggering of small saccades in the male rhesus macaque monkey. We also compared our results to those obtained in human subjects, both from the existing literature and through our own additional measurements. Using a variety of behavioral tasks exercising visual and nonvisual guidance of small saccades, we found that small saccades consistently require more time than larger saccades to be triggered in the nonhuman primate, even in the absence of any visual guidance and when valid advance information about the saccade landing position is available. We also found a strong asymmetry in the reaction times of small upper versus lower visual field visually guided saccades, a phenomenon that has not been described before for small saccades, even in humans. Following the suggestion that an eye movement is not initiated as long as the visuo-oculomotor system is within a state of balance, in which opposing commands counterbalance each other, we propose that the longer reaction times are a signature of enhanced times needed to create the symmetry-breaking condition that puts downstream premotor neurons into a push-pull regime necessary for rotating the eyeballs. Our results provide an important catalog of nonhuman primate oculomotor capabilities on the miniature scale, allowing concrete predictions on underlying neurophysiological mechanisms. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Leveraging a multitude of neurophysiological investigations in the rhesus macaque monkey, we generated and tested hypotheses about small-saccade latencies in this animal model. We found that small saccades always take longer, on average, than larger saccades to trigger, regardless of visual and cognitive context. Moreover, small downward saccades have the longest latencies overall. Our results provide an important documentation of oculomotor capabilities of an indispensable animal model for neuroscientific research in vision, cognition, and action.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Hart2020,

title = {Recurrent circuit dynamics underlie persistent activity in the macaque frontoparietal network},

author = {Eric Hart and Alexander C. Huk},

doi = {10.7554/eLife.52460},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {9},

pages = {1–22},

abstract = {During delayed oculomotor response tasks, neurons in the lateral intraparietal area (LIP) and the frontal eye fields (FEF) exhibit persistent activity that reflects the active maintenance of behaviorally relevant information. Despite many computational models of the mechanisms of persistent activity, there is a lack of circuit-level data from the primate to inform the theories. To fill this gap, we simultaneously recorded ensembles of neurons in both LIP and FEF while macaques performed a memory-guided saccade task. A population encoding model revealed strong and symmetric long-timescale recurrent excitation between LIP and FEF. Unexpectedly, LIP exhibited stronger local functional connectivity than FEF, and many neurons in LIP had longer network and intrinsic timescales. The differences in connectivity could be explained by the strength of recurrent dynamics in attractor networks. These findings reveal reciprocal multi-area circuit dynamics in the frontoparietal network during persistent activity and lay the groundwork for quantitative comparisons to theoretical models.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Henry2020,

title = {Spatial contextual effects in primary visual cortex limit feature representation under crowding},

author = {Christopher A. Henry and Adam Kohn},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-020-15386-7},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {11},

pages = {1687},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Crowding is a profound loss of discriminability of visual features, when a target stimulus is surrounded by distractors. Numerous studies of human perception have characterized how crowding depends on the properties of a visual display. Yet, there is limited understanding of how and where stimulus information is lost in the visual system under crowding. Here, we show that macaque monkeys exhibit perceptual crowding for target orientation that is similar to humans. We then record from neuronal populations in monkey primary visual cortex (V1). These populations show an appreciable loss of information about target orientation in the presence of distractors, due both to divisive and additive modulation of responses to targets by distractors. Our results show that spatial contextual effects in V1 limit the discriminability of visual features and can contribute substantively to crowding.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Herman2020,

title = {Attention-related modulation of caudate neurons depends on superior colliculus activity},

author = {James P. Herman and Fabrice Arcizet and Richard J. Krauzlis},

doi = {10.7554/ELIFE.53998},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {9},

pages = {1–26},

abstract = {Recent work has implicated the primate basal ganglia in visual perception and attention, in addition to their traditional role in motor control. The basal ganglia, especially the caudate nucleus “head” (CDh) of the striatum, receive indirect anatomical connections from the superior colliculus, a midbrain structure that is known to play a crucial role in the control of visual attention. To test the possible functional relationship between these subcortical structures, we recorded CDh neuronal activity of macaque monkeys before and during unilateral superior colliculus (SC) inactivation in a spatial attention task. SC inactivation significantly altered the attention-related modulation of CDh neurons and strongly impaired the classification of task epochs based on CDh activity. Only inactivation of SC on the same side of the brain as recorded CDh neurons, not the opposite side, had these effects. These results demonstrate a novel interaction between SC activity and attention-related visual processing in the basal ganglia.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mehrpour2020,

title = {Attention amplifies neural representations of changes in sensory input at the expense of perceptual accuracy},

author = {Vahid Mehrpour and Julio C. Martinez-Trujillo and Stefan Treue},

doi = {10.1038/s41467-020-15989-0},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Nature Communications},

volume = {11},

pages = {2128},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {Attention enhances the neural representations of behaviorally relevant stimuli, typically by a push–pull increase of the neuronal response gain to attended vs. unattended stimuli. This selectively improves perception and consequently behavioral performance. However, to enhance the detectability of stimulus changes, attention might also distort neural representations, compromising accurate stimulus representation. We test this hypothesis by recording neural responses in the visual cortex of rhesus monkeys during a motion direction change detection task. We find that attention indeed amplifies the neural representation of direction changes, beyond a similar effect of adaptation. We further show that humans overestimate such direction changes, providing a perceptual correlate of our neurophysiological observations. Our results demonstrate that attention distorts the neural representations of abrupt sensory changes and consequently perceptual accuracy. This likely represents an evolutionary adaptive mechanism that allows sensory systems to flexibly forgo accurate representation of stimulus features to improve the encoding of stimulus change.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Mohl2020,

title = {Monkeys and humans implement causal inference to simultaneously localize auditory and visual stimuli},

author = {Jeff T. Mohl and John M. Pearson and Jennifer M. Groh},

doi = {10.1152/jn.00046.2020},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neurophysiology},

volume = {124},

number = {3},

pages = {715–727},

abstract = {The environment is sampled by multiple senses, which are woven together to produce a unified perceptual state. However, optimally unifying such signals requires assigning particular signals to the same or different underlying objects or events. Many prior studies (especially in animals) have assumed fusion of cross-modal information, whereas recent work in humans has begun to probe the appropriateness of this assumption. Here we present results from a novel behavioral task in which both monkeys (Macaca mulatta) and humans localized visual and auditory stimuli and reported their perceived sources through saccadic eye movements. When the locations of visual and auditory stimuli were widely separated, subjects made two saccades, while when the two stimuli were presented at the same location they made only a single saccade. Intermediate levels of separation produced mixed response patterns: a single saccade to an intermediate position on some trials or separate saccades to both locations on others. The distribution of responses was well described by a hierarchical causal inference model that accu- rately predicted both the explicit “same vs. different” source judg- ments as well as biases in localization of the source(s) under each of these conditions. The results from this task are broadly consistent with prior work in humans across a wide variety of analogous tasks, extending the study of multisensory causal inference to nonhuman primates and to a natural behavioral task with both a categorical assay of the number of perceived sources and a continuous report of the perceived position of the stimuli.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Noritake2020,

title = {Representation of distinct reward variables for self and other in primate lateral hypothalamus},

author = {Atsushi Noritake and Taihei Ninomiya and Masaki Isoda},

doi = {10.1073/pnas.1917156117},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},

volume = {117},

number = {10},

pages = {5516–5524},

abstract = {The lateral hypothalamus (LH) has long been implicated in maintaining behavioral homeostasis essential for the survival of an individual. However, recent evidence suggests its more widespread roles in behavioral coordination, extending to the social domain. The neuronal and circuit mechanisms behind the LH processing of social information are unknown. Here, we show that the LH represents distinct reward variables for “self” and “other” and is causally involved in shaping socially motivated behavior. During a Pavlovian conditioning procedure incorporating ubiquitous social experiences where rewards to others affect one's motivation, LH cells encoded the subjective value of self-rewards, as well as the likelihood of self- or other-rewards. The other-reward coding was not a general consequence of other's existence, but a specific effect of other's reward availability. Coherent activity with and top-down information flow from the medial prefrontal cortex, a hub of social brain networks, contributed to signal encoding in the LH. Furthermore, deactivation of LH cells eliminated the motivational impact of other-rewards. These results indicate that the LH constitutes a subcortical node in social brain networks and shapes one's motivation by integrating cortically derived, agent-specific reward information.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{OConnell2020,

title = {The role of motor and environmental visual rhythms in structuring auditory cortical excitability},

author = {Monica N. O'Connell and Annamaria Barczak and Tammy McGinnis and Kieran Mackin and Todd Mowery and Charles E. Schroeder and Peter Lakatos},

doi = {10.1016/j.isci.2020.101374},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {iScience},

volume = {23},

number = {8},

pages = {101374},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Previous studies indicate that motor sampling patterns modulate neuronal excit- ability in sensory brain regions by entraining brain rhythms, a process termed mo- tor-initiated entrainment. In addition, rhythms of the external environment are also capable of entraining brain rhythms. Our first goal was to investigate the properties ofmotor-initiatedentrainment in theauditory systemusingaprominent visualmotor sampling pattern in primates, saccades. Second, we wanted to determine whether/ how motor-initiated entrainment interacts with visual environmental entrainment. Weexamined laminar profiles of neuronal ensemble activity in primary auditory cor- tex and found that whereasmotor-initiated entrainment has a suppressive effect, vi- sual environmental entrainment has an enhancive effect. We also found that these processes are temporally coupled, and their temporal relationship ensures that their effect on excitability is complementary rather than interfering. Altogether, our re- sults demonstrate that motor and sensory systems continuously interact in orches- tratingthebrain's context for theoptimal samplingofourmultisensoryenvironment. INTRODUCTION},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ong2020,

title = {Neuronal correlates of strategic cooperation in monkeys},

author = {Wei Song Ong and Seth Madlon-Kay and Michael L. Platt},

doi = {10.1038/s41593-020-00746-9},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Nature Neuroscience},

volume = {24},

pages = {116–128},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {We recorded neural activity in male monkeys playing a variant of the game ‘chicken' in which they made decisions to cooperate or not cooperate to obtain rewards of different sizes. Neurons in the middle superior temporal sulcus (mSTS)—previously implicated in social perception—signaled strategic information, including payoffs, intentions of the other player, reward outcomes and predictions about the other player. Moreover, a subpopulation of mSTS neurons selectively signaled cooperatively obtained rewards. Neurons in the anterior cingulate gyrus, previously implicated in vicarious reinforcement and empathy, carried less information about strategic variables, especially cooperative reward. Strategic signals were not reducible to perceptual information about the other player or motor contingencies. These findings suggest that the capacity to compute models of other agents has deep roots in the strategic social behavior of primates and that the anterior cingulate gyrus and the mSTS support these computations.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}