EyeLink Developmental Eye-Tracking Publications
All EyeLink developmental research publications (infants / children / aging) up until 2022 (with some early 2023s) are listed below by year. You can search the publications using keywords such as Infant, Reading, Word Recognition, etc. You can also search for individual author names. If we missed any EyeLink developmental articles, please email us!
2015 |
Holly S. S. L. Joseph; Georgina Bremner; Simon P. Liversedge; Kate Nation Working memory, reading ability and the effects of distance and typicality on anaphor resolution in children Journal Article In: Journal of Cognitive Psychology, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 622–639, 2015. @article{Joseph2015,We investigated the time course of anaphor resolution in children and whether this is modulated by individual differences in working memory and reading skill. The eye movements of 30 children (10–11 years) were monitored as they read short paragraphs in which (1) the semantic typicality of an antecedent and (2) its distance in relation to an anaphor were orthogonally manipulated. Children showed effects of distance and typicality on the anaphor itself and also on the word to the right of the anaphor, suggesting that anaphoric processing begins immediately but continues after the eyes have left the anaphor. Furthermore, children showed no evidence of resolving anaphors in the most difficult condition (distant atypical antecedent), suggesting that anaphoric processing that is demanding may not occur online in children of this age. Finally, working memory capacity and reading comprehension skill affect the magnitude and time course of typicality and distance effects during anaphoric processing. |
Johanna K. Kaakinen; Annika Lehtola; Satu Paattilammi The influence of a reading task on children's eye movements during reading Journal Article In: Journal of Cognitive Psychology, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 640–656, 2015. @article{Kaakinen2015,In the present study, second graders (n= 23), fourth graders (n= 16), sixth graders (n= 24) and adults (n= 21) read texts adopted from children's science textbooks either with the task to answer a “why” question presented as the title of the text or for comprehension when their eye movements were recorded. Immediately after reading, readers answered a text memory and an integration question. Second graders showed an effect of questions as increased processing during first-pass reading, whereas older readers showed the effect in later look-backs. For adult readers, questions also facilitated first-pass reading. Text memory or integration question-answering was not influenced by the reading task. The results indicate that questions increase the standards of coherence for text information and that already young readers do modify their reading behaviour according to task demands. |
Naiman A. Khan; Carol L. Baym; Jim M. Monti; Lauren B. Raine; Eric S. Drollette; Mark R. Scudder; R. Davis Moore; Arthur F. Kramer; Charles H. Hillman; Neal J. Cohen Central adiposity is negatively associated with hippocampal-dependent relational memory among overweight and obese children Journal Article In: Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 166, no. 2, pp. 302–308, 2015. @article{Khan2015a,Objective—To assess associations between adiposity and hippocampal-dependent and hippocampal-independent memory forms among prepubertal children. Study design—Prepubertal children (7–9-year-olds |
Gustav Kuhn; Amber Pagano; Sumaya Maani; David Bunce Age-related decline in the reflexive component of overt gaze following Journal Article In: Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol. 68, no. 6, pp. 1073–1081, 2015. @article{Kuhn2015,Previous research has found age-related declines in social perception tasks as well as the ability to engage in joint attention and orienting covert attention (i.e., absence of eye movements) in response to an eye gaze cue. We used an overt gaze following task to explore age differences in overt gaze following whilst people searched for a target. Participants were faster to detect targets appearing at the looked-at location, and although the gaze cue biased the direction in which saccades were executed, no age differences were found in overt gaze following. There were, however, age effects relating to involuntary eye movements. In the younger adults, anticipatory saccades were biased in the direction of the gaze cue, but this bias was not observed in the older group. Moreover, in the younger adults, saccades that followed the gaze were initiated more rapidly, illustrating the reflexive nature of gaze following. No such difference was observed in the older adults. Importantly, our results showed that whilst the general levels of gaze following were age invariant, there were age-related differences in the reflexive components of overt gaze following. |
Feifei Liang; Hazel I. Blythe; Chuanli Zang; Xuejun Bai; Guoli Yan; Simon P. Liversedge Positional character frequency and word spacing facilitate the acquisition of novel words during Chinese children's reading Journal Article In: Journal of Cognitive Psychology, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 594–608, 2015. @article{Liang2015,Children's eye movements were recorded to examine the role of word spacing and positional character frequency on the process of Chinese lexical acquisition during reading. Three types of two-character novel pseudowords were constructed: words containing characters in positions in which they frequently occurred (congruent), words containing characters in positions they do not frequently occur in (incongruent) and words containing characters that do not have a strong position bias (balanced). There were two phases within the experiment, a learning phase and a test phase. There were also two learning groups: half the children read sentences in a word-spaced format and the other half read the sentences in an unspaced format during the learning phase. All the participants read normal, unspaced text at test. A benefit of word spacing was observed in the learning phase, but not at test. Also, facilitatory effects of positional character congruency were found both in the learning and test phase; however, this benefit was greatly reduced at test. Furthermore, we did not find any interaction between word spacing and positional character frequencies, indicating that these two types of cues affect lexical acquisition independently. With respect to theoretical accounts of lexical acquisition, we argue that word spacing might facilitate the very earliest stages of word learning by clearly demarking word boundary locations. In contrast, we argue that characters' positional frequencies might affect relatively later stages of word learning. |
Pingping Liu; Danlu Liu; Buxin Han; Kevin B. Paterson Aging and the optimal viewing position effect in Chinese Journal Article In: Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 6, pp. 1656, 2015. @article{Liu2015a,Substantial evidence indicates that where readers fixate within a word affects the efficiency with which that word is recognized. Indeed, words in alphabetic languages (e.g., English, French) are recognized most efficiently when fixated at their optimal viewing position (OVP), which is near the word center. However, little is known about the effects of fixation location on word recognition in non-alphabetic languages, such as Chinese. Moreover, studies to date have not investigated if effects of fixation location vary across adult age-groups, although it is well-established that older readers experience greater difficulty recognizing words due to visual and cognitive declines. Accordingly, the present research examined OVP effects by young and older adult readers when recognizing Chinese words presented in isolation. Most words in Chinese are formed from two or more logograms called characters and so the present experiment investigated the influence of fixation location on the recognition of 2-, 3-, and 4-character words (and nonwords). The older adults experienced generally greater word recognition difficulty. But whereas the young adults recognized words most efficiently when initially fixating the first character of 2-character words and second character of 3- and 4-character words, the older adults recognized words most efficiently when initially fixating the first character for words of each length. The findings therefore reveal subtle but potentially important adult age differences in the effects of fixation location on Chinese word recognition. Moreover, the similarity in effects for words and nonwords implies a more general age-related change in oculomotor strategy when processing Chinese character-strings. |
Steven G. Luke; John M. Henderson; Fernanda Ferreira Children's eye-movements during reading reflect the quality of lexical representations: An individual differences approach Journal Article In: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, vol. 41, no. 6, pp. 1675–1683, 2015. @article{Luke2015a,The lexical quality hypothesis (Perfetti & Hart, 2002) suggests that skilled reading requires high-quality lexical representations. In children, these representations are still developing, and it has been suggested that this development leads to more adult-like eye-movement behavior during the reading of connected text. To test this idea, a set of young adolescents (aged 11-13 years) completed a standardized measure of lexical quality and then participated in 3 eye-movement tasks: reading, scene search, and pseudoreading. The richness of participants' lexical representations predicted a variety of eye-movement behaviors in reading. Further, the influence of lexical quality was domain specific: Fixation durations in reading diverged from the other tasks as lexical quality increased. These findings suggest that eye movements become increasingly tuned to written language processing as lexical representations become more accurate and detailed. |
Lyuba Mancheva; Erik D. Reichle; Benoît Lemaire; Sylviane Valdois; Jean Ecalle; Anne Guérin-Dugué An analysis of reading skill development using E-Z Reader Journal Article In: Journal of Cognitive Psychology, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 657–676, 2015. @article{Mancheva2015,Previously reported simulations using the E-Z Reader model of eye-movement control suggest that the patterns of eye movements observed with children versus adult readers reflect differences in lexical processing proficiency. However, these simulations fail to specify precisely what aspect(s) of lexical processing (e.g., orthographic processing) account for the concurrent changes in eye movements and reading skill. To examine this issue, the E-Z Reader model was first used to simulate the aggregate eye-movement data from 15 adults and 75 children to replicate the finding that gross differences in reading skill can be accounted for by differences in lexical processing proficiency. The model was then used to simulate the eye-movement data of individual children so that the best-fitting lexical processing parameters could be correlated to measures of orthographic knowledge, phonological processing skill, sentence comprehension, and general intelligence. These analyses suggest that orthographic knowledge accounts for variance in the eye-movement measures that is observed with between-individual differences in reading skill. The theoretical implications of this conclusion will be discussed in relation to computational models of reading and our understanding of reading skill development. |
Victoria A. McGowan; Sarah J. White; Kevin B. Paterson The effects of interword spacing on the eye movements of young and older readers Journal Article In: Journal of Cognitive Psychology, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 609–621, 2015. @article{McGowan2015,Recent evidence indicates that older adults (aged 65+) are more disrupted by removing interword spaces than young adults (aged 18–30). However, it is not known whether older readers also show greater sensitivity to the more subtle changes to this spacing that frequently occur during normal reading. In the present study the eye movements of young and older adults were examined when reading texts for which interword spacing was normal, condensed to half its normal size or expanded to 1.5 times its normal size. Although these changes in interword spacing affected eye movement behaviour, this influence did not differ between young and older adults. Furthermore, a word frequency manipulation showed that these changes did not affect word identification for either group. The results indicate that older adults can adapt their eye moment behaviour to accommodate subtle changes in the spatial layout of text equally effectively as young adults. |
2014 |
Timothy R. Jordan; Victoria A. McGowan; Kevin B. Paterson Reading with filtered fixations: Adult age differences in the effectiveness of low-level properties of text within central vision Journal Article In: Psychology and Aging, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 229–235, 2014. @article{Jordan2014a,When reading, low-level visual properties of text are acquired from central vision during brief fixational pauses, but the effectiveness of these properties may differ in older age. To investigate, a filtering technique displayed the low, medium, or high spatial frequencies of text falling within central vision as young (18-28 years) and older (65+ years) adults read. Reading times for normal text did not differ across age groups, but striking differences in the effectiveness of spatial frequencies were observed. Consequently, even when young and older adults read equally well, the effectiveness of spatial frequencies in central vision differs markedly in older age. |
Thorsten Kolling; Gabriella Óturai; Monika Knopf Is selective attention the basis for selective imitation in infants: An eye-tracking study of deferred imitation with 12-month-olds. Journal Article In: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, vol. 124, no. 1, pp. 18–35, 2014. @article{Kolling2014,Infants and children do not blindly copy every action they observe during imitation tasks. Research demonstrated that infants are efficient selective imitators. The impact of selective perceptual processes (selective attention) for selective deferred imitation, however, is still poorly described. The current study, therefore, analyzed 12-month-old infants' looking behavior during demonstration of two types of target actions: arbitrary versus functional actions. A fully automated remote eye tracker was used to assess infants' looking behavior during action demonstration. After a 30-min delay, infants' deferred imitation performance was assessed. Next to replicating a memory effect, results demonstrate that infants do imitate significantly more functional actions than arbitrary actions (functionality effect). Eye-tracking data show that whereas infants do not fixate significantly longer on functional actions than on arbitrary actions, amount of fixations and amount of saccades differ between functional and arbitrary actions, indicating different encoding mechanisms. In addition, item-level findings differ from overall findings, indicating that perceptual and conceptual item features influence looking behavior. Looking behavior on both the overall and item levels, however, does not relate to deferred imitation performance. Taken together, the findings demonstrate that, on the one hand, selective imitation is not explainable merely by selective attention processes. On the other hand, notwithstanding this reasoning, attention processes on the item level are important for encoding processes during target action demonstration. Limitations and future studies are discussed. |
John J. H. Lin; Sunny S. J. Lin Tracking eye movements when solving geometry problems with handwriting devices Journal Article In: Journal of Eye Movement Research, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 1–15, 2014. @article{Lin2014a,The present study investigated the following issues: (1) whether differences are evident in the eye movement measures of successful and unsuccessful problem-solvers; (2) what is the relationship between perceived difficulty and eye movement measures; and (3) whether eye movements in various AOIs differ when solving problems. Sixty-three 11th grade students solved five geometry problems about the properties of similar triangles. A digital drawing tablet and sensitive pressure pen were used to record the responses. The results indicated that unsuccessful solvers tended to have more fixation counts, run counts, and longer dwell time on the problem area, whereas successful solvers focused more on the calculation area. In addition, fixation counts, dwell time, and run counts in the diagram area were positively correlated with the perceived difficulty, suggesting that understanding similar triangles may require translation or mental rotation. We argue that three eye movement measures (i.e., fixation counts, dwell time, and run counts) are appropriate for use in examining problem solving given that they differentiate successful from unsuccessful solvers and correlate with perceived difficulty. Furthermore, the eye-tracking technique provides objective measures of students' cognitive load for instructional designers. |
Victoria A. McGowan; Sarah J. White; Timothy R. Jordan; Kevin B. Paterson Aging and the use of interword spaces during reading: Evidence from eye movements Journal Article In: Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 740–747, 2014. @article{McGowan2014,In an eye movement experiment, we assessed the performance of young (18-30 years) and older (65 + years) adult readers when sentences contained conventional interword spaces, when interword spaces were removed, or when interword spaces were replaced by nonlinguistic symbols. The replacement symbol was either a closed square (■) that provided a salient (low-spatial-frequency) cue to word boundaries, or an open square (□) that provided a less salient cue and included features (vertical and horizontal lines) similar to those found in letters. Removing or replacing interword spaces slowed reading times and impaired normal eye movement behavior for both age groups. However, this disruption was greater for the older readers, particularly when the replacement symbol did not provide a salient cue as to word boundaries. Specific influences of this manipulation on word identification during reading were assessed by examining eye movements for a high- or low-frequency target word in each sentence. Standard word frequency effects were obtained for both age groups when text was spaced normally, and although the word frequency effect was larger when spaces were removed or filled, the increases were similar across age groups. Therefore, whereas older adults' normal eye movements were substantially disrupted when text lacked conventional interword spaces, the process of lexical access associated with the word frequency effect was no more difficult for older than for young adults. The indication, therefore, is that although older adults struggle from the loss of conventional cues to word boundaries, this is not due to additional difficulties in word recognition. |
Laura K. Sasse; Matthias Gamer; Christian Büchel; Stefanie Brassen Selective control of attention supports the positivity effect in aging Journal Article In: PLoS ONE, vol. 9, no. 8, pp. e104180, 2014. @article{Sasse2014,There is emerging evidence for a positivity effect in healthy aging, which describes an age-specific increased focus on positive compared to negative information. Life-span researchers have attributed this effect to the selective allocation of cognitive resources in the service of prioritized emotional goals. We explored the basic principles of this assumption by assessing selective attention and memory for visual stimuli, differing in emotional content and self-relevance, in young and old participants. To specifically address the impact of cognitive control, voluntary attentional selection during the presentation of multiple-item displays was analyzed and linked to participants' general ability of cognitive control. Results revealed a positivity effect in older adults' selective attention and memory, which was particularly pronounced for self-relevant stimuli. Focusing on positive and ignoring negative information was most evident in older participants with a generally higher ability to exert top-down control during visual search. Our findings highlight the role of controlled selectivity in the occurrence of a positivity effect in aging. Since the effect has been related to well-being in later life, we suggest that the ability to selectively allocate top-down control might represent a resilience factor for emotional health in aging. |
Christina Schonberg; Catherine M. Sandhofer; Tawny Tsang; Scott P. Johnson Does bilingual experience affect early visual perceptual development? Journal Article In: Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 5, pp. 1429, 2014. @article{Schonberg2014a,Visual attention and perception develop rapidly during the first few months after birth, and these behaviors are critical components in the development of language and cognitive abilities. Here we ask how early bilingual experiences might lead to differences in visual attention and perception. Experiments 1-3 investigated the looking behavior of monolingual and bilingual infants when presented with social (Experiment 1), mixed (Experiment 2), or non-social (Experiment 3) stimuli. In each of these experiments, infants' dwell times (DT) and number of fixations to areas of interest (AOIs) were analyzed, giving a sense of where the infants looked. To examine how the infants looked at the stimuli in a more global sense, Experiment 4 combined and analyzed the saccade data collected in Experiments 1-3. There were no significant differences between monolingual and bilingual infants' DTs, AOI fixations, or saccade characteristics (specifically, frequency, and amplitude) in any of the experiments. These results suggest that monolingual and bilingual infants process their visual environments similarly, supporting the idea that the substantial cognitive differences between monolinguals and bilinguals in early childhood are more related to active vocabulary production than perception of the environment. |
Steven D. Stagg; Karina J. Linnell; Pamela Heaton Investigating eye movement patterns, language, and social ability in children with autism spectrum disorder Journal Article In: Development and Psychopathology, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 529–537, 2014. @article{Stagg2014,Although all intellectually high-functioning children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) display core social and communication deficits, some develop language within a normative timescale and others experience significant delays and subsequent language impairment. Early attention to social stimuli plays an important role in the emergence of language, and reduced attention to faces has been documented in infants later diagnosed with ASD. We investigated the extent to which patterns of attention to social stimuli would differentiate early and late language onset groups. Children with ASD (mean age = 10 years) differing on language onset timing (late/normal) and a typically developing comparison group completed a task in which visual attention to interacting and noninteracting human figures was mapped using eye tracking. Correlations on visual attention data and results from tests measuring current social and language ability were conducted. Patterns of visual attention did not distinguish typically developing children and ASD children with normal language onset. Children with ASD and late language onset showed significantly reduced attention to salient social stimuli. Associations between current language ability and social attention were observed. Delay in language onset is associated with current language skills as well as with specific eye-tracking patterns. |
Christian Vorstius; Ralph Radach; Christopher J Lonigan Eye movements in developing readers: A comparison of silent and oral sentence reading Journal Article In: Visual Cognition, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 458–485, 2014. @article{Vorstius2014,We present sentence reading data from a large-scale study with children (N = 632), focusing on three key research questions. (1) What are the trajectories of reading development in oral as compared to silent reading? (2) How are word frequency effects developing and are changes differentially affected by reading mode? (3) Are there systematic differences between better and weaker comprehenders when reading silently vs. aloud? Results illuminate a number of differences between reading modes, including more and prolonged fixations in oral reading, along with less inter-word regressions and attenuated effects of word frequency. Weaker comprehenders were slower, especially in oral reading and showed less flexibility in the allocation of word processing time. Differences between reading modes can be explained by additional processing demands imposed by concurrent articulation and eye?voice coordination when reading aloud.$$nWe present sentence reading data from a large-scale study with children (N = 632), focusing on three key research questions. (1) What are the trajectories of reading development in oral as compared to silent reading? (2) How are word frequency effects developing and are changes differentially affected by reading mode? (3) Are there systematic differences between better and weaker comprehenders when reading silently vs. aloud? Results illuminate a number of differences between reading modes, including more and prolonged fixations in oral reading, along with less inter-word regressions and attenuated effects of word frequency. Weaker comprehenders were slower, especially in oral reading and showed less flexibility in the allocation of word processing time. Differences between reading modes can be explained by additional processing demands imposed by concurrent articulation and eye?voice coordination when reading aloud. |
Gregory L. West; Sandrine Mendizabal; Marie Pierre Carrière; Sarah Lippé Linear age-correlated development of inhibitory saccadic trajectory deviations Journal Article In: Developmental Psychology, vol. 50, no. 9, pp. 2285–2290, 2014. @article{West2014,The present study examined development-related differences in saccade curvature during a goal-directed saccade task in the presence of distracting visual information. Participants were individuals who ranged in age from 6 to 30 years. Consistent with previous findings, all participants showed curvature toward the distractor stimulus at shorter saccadic reaction times (SRTs). Chronological age, however, was positively related to participants' ability to inhibit distracting information as revealed by curvature away from the distractor stimulus at longer SRTs. Interestingly, no significant differences in saccadic reaction times were observed. Results are discussed in the context of similar findings comparing older and younger adults and the putative frontal neural mechanisms that contribute to the observed developmental effect. Our present results suggest that saccadic curvature can be used a tool to measure fontal-oculomotor control interaction across the life span and can be further used to examine inhibitory functioning in special pediatric populations (e.g., having brain trauma, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, frontal epilepsy). |
Peng Zhou; Stephen Crain; Likan Zhan Grammatical aspect and event recognition in children's online sentence comprehension Journal Article In: Cognition, vol. 133, no. 1, pp. 262–276, 2014. @article{Zhou2014,This study investigated whether or not the temporal information encoded in aspectual morphemes can be used immediately by young children to facilitate event recognition during online sentence comprehension. We focused on the contrast between two grammatical aspectual morphemes in Mandarin Chinese, the perfective morpheme -le and the (imperfective) durative morpheme -zhe. The perfective morpheme -le is often used to indicate that an event has been completed, whereas the durative morpheme -zhe indicates that an event is still in progress or continuing. We were interested to see whether young children are able to use the temporal reference encoded in the two aspectual morphemes (i.e., completed versus ongoing) as rapidly as adults to facilitate event recognition during online sentence comprehension. Using the visual world eye-tracking paradigm, we tested 34 Mandarin-speaking adults and 99 Mandarin-speaking children (35 three-year-olds, 32 four-year-olds and 32 five-year-olds). On each trial, participants were presented with spoken sentences containing either of the two aspectual morphemes while viewing a visual image containing two pictures, one representing a completed event and one representing an ongoing event. Participants' eye movements were recorded from the onset of the spoken sentences. The results show that both the adults and the three age groups of children exhibited a facilitatory effect trigged by the aspectual morpheme: hearing the perfective morpheme -le triggered more eye movements to the completed event area, whereas hearing the durative morpheme -zhe triggered more eye movements to the ongoing event area. This effect occurred immediately after the onset of the aspectual morpheme, both for the adults and the three groups of children. This is evidence that young children are able to use the temporal information encoded in aspectual morphemes as rapidly as adults to facilitate event recognition. Children's eye movement patterns reflect a rapid mapping of grammatical aspect onto the temporal structures of events depicted in the visual scene. |
Denton J. DeLoss; Takeo Watanabe; George J. Andersen Optimization of perceptual learning: Effects of task difficulty and external noise in older adults Journal Article In: Vision Research, vol. 99, pp. 37–45, 2014. @article{DeLoss2014,Previous research has shown a wide array of age-related declines in vision. The current study examined the effects of perceptual learning (PL), external noise, and task difficulty in fine orientation discrimination with older individuals (mean age 71.73, range 65-91). Thirty-two older subjects participated in seven 1.5-h sessions conducted on separate days over a three-week period. A two-alternative forced choice procedure was used in discriminating the orientation of Gabor patches. Four training groups were examined in which the standard orientations for training were either easy or difficult and included either external noise (additive Gaussian noise) or no external noise. In addition, the transfer to an untrained orientation and noise levels were examined. An analysis of the four groups prior to training indicated no significant differences between the groups. An analysis of the change in performance post-training indicated that the degree of learning was related to task difficulty and the presence of external noise during training. In addition, measurements of pupil diameter indicated that changes in orientation discrimination were not associated with changes in retinal illuminance. These results suggest that task difficulty and training in noise are factors important for optimizing the effects of training among older individuals. |
Paul E. Engelhardt Children's and adolescents' processing of temporary syntactic ambiguity: An eye movement study Journal Article In: Child Development Research, vol. 2014, no. 13, pp. 1–13, 2014. @article{Engelhardt2014,This study examined the eye movements of 24 children and adolescents as they read sentences containing temporary syntactic ambiguities. Prior research suggested that children primarily use grammatical information when making initial parsing decisions, and they tend to disregard semantic and contextual information. On each trial, participants read a garden path sentence (e.g., While the storm blew the boat sat in the shed ), and, afterwards, they answered a comprehension question (e.g., Did the storm blow the boat? ). The design was 2 × 2 (verb type × ambiguity) repeated measures. Verb type was optionally transitive or reflexive, and sentences were ambiguous or unambiguous. Results showed no differences in first pass reading times at the disambiguating verb (e.g., sat ). However, regressions did show a significant interaction. The unambiguous-reflexive condition had approximately half the number of regressions, suggesting less processing difficulty in this condition. Developmentally, we found that adolescents had significantly better comprehension, which seemed to be linked to the increased tendency to regress from the disambiguating word. Findings are consistent with the assumption that the processing architecture is more restricted in children compared to adolescents. In addition, results indicated that variance in ambiguity resolution was associated with interference control but not working memory. |
Tomer Fekete; Felix D. C. C. Beacher; Jiook Cha; Denis Rubin; Lilianne R. Mujica-Parodi Small-world network properties in prefrontal cortex correlate with predictors of psychopathology risk in young children: A NIRS study Journal Article In: NeuroImage, vol. 85, pp. 345–353, 2014. @article{Fekete2014,Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is an emerging imaging technique that is relatively inexpensive, portable, and particularly well suited for collecting data in ecological settings. Therefore, it holds promise as a potential neurodiagnostic for young children. We set out to explore whether NIRS could be utilized in assessing the risk of developmental psychopathology in young children. A growing body of work indicates that temperament at young age is associated with vulnerability to psychopathology later on in life. In particular, it has been shown that low effortful control (EC), which includes the focusing and shifting of attention, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and a low threshold for pleasure, is linked to conditions such as anxiety, depression and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Physiologically, EC has been linked to a control network spanning among other sites the prefrontal cortex. Several psychopathologies, such as depression and ADHD, have been shown to result in compromised small-world network properties. Therefore we set out to explore the relationship between EC and the small-world properties of PFC using NIRS. NIRS data were collected from 44 toddlers, ages 3-5, while watching naturalistic stimuli (movie clips). Derived complex network measures were then correlated to EC as derived from the Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ). We found that reduced levels of EC were associated with compromised small-world properties of the prefrontal network. Our results suggest that the longitudinal NIRS studies of complex network properties in young children hold promise in furthering our understanding of developmental psychopathology. |
Joost Felius; Cynthia L. Beauchamp; David R. Stager Visual acuity deficits in children with nystagmus and down syndrome Journal Article In: American Journal of Ophthalmology, vol. 157, no. 2, pp. 458–463, 2014. @article{Felius2014,Purpose: To investigate the association between visual acuity deficits and fixation instability in children with Down syndrome and nystagmus. Design Prospective cross-sectional study. Methods: setting: Institutional. study population: Sixteen children (aged 10 months-14 years) with Down syndrome and nystagmus, and a control group of 93 age-similar children with unassociated infantile nystagmus. observation procedures: Binocular Teller acuity card testing and eye-movement recordings. Fixation stability was quantified using the nystagmus optimal fixation function (NOFF). An exponential model based on results from the control group with unassociated infantile nystagmus was used to relate fixation stability to age-corrected visual acuity deficits. main outcome measures: Binocular grating visual acuity and NOFF. Results: Visual acuity was 0.2-0.9 logMAR (20/30-20/174 Snellen equivalent) and corresponded to a 0.4 logMAR (4 lines) mean age-corrected visual acuity deficit. Fixation stability ranged from poor to mildly affected. Although visual acuity deficit was on average 0.17 logMAR larger (P =.005) than predicted by the model, most children had visual acuity deficit within the 95% predictive interval. Conclusions: There was a small mean difference between the measured visual acuity deficit and the prediction of the nystagmus model. Although other factors also contribute to visual acuity loss in Down syndrome, nystagmus alone could account for most of the visual acuity deficit in these children. |
Maria J. S. Guerreiro; Jos J. Adam; Pascal W. M. Van Gerven Aging and response interference across sensory modalities Journal Article In: Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 836–842, 2014. @article{Guerreiro2014,Advancing age is associated with decrements in selective attention. It was recently hypothesized that age-related differences in selective attention depend on sensory modality. The goal of the present study was to investigate the role of sensory modality in age-related vulnerability to distraction, using a response interference task. To this end, 16 younger (mean age = 23.1 years) and 24 older (mean age = 65.3 years) adults performed four response interference tasks, involving all combinations of visual and auditory targets and distractors. The results showed that response interference effects differ across sensory modalities, but not across age groups. These results indicate that sensory modality plays an important role in vulnerability to distraction, but not in age-related distractibility by irrelevant spatial information. |
Wei He; Jon Brock; Blake W. Johnson Face-sensitive brain responses measured from a four-year-old child with a custom-sized child MEG system Journal Article In: Journal of Neuroscience Methods, vol. 222, pp. 213–217, 2014. @article{He2014,Background: Previous magnetoencephalography (MEG) studies have failed to find a facesensitive, brain response-M170 in children. If this is the case, this suggests that the developmental trajectory of the M170 is different from that of its electrical equivalent, the N170. We investigated the alternative possibility that the child M170 may not be detectable in conventional adult-sized MEG systems. New method: Brain responses to pictures of faces and well controlled stimuli were measured from the same four-year-old child with a custom child MEG system and an adult-sized MEG system. Results: The goodness of fit of the child's head was about the same over the occipital head surface in both systems, but was much worse over all other parts of the head surface in the adult MEG system compared to the child MEG system. The face-sensitive M170 was measured from the child in both MEG systems, but was larger in amplitude, clearer in morphology, and had a more accurate source localization when measured in the child MEG system. Comparison with existing method: The custom-sized child MEG system is superior for measuring the face-sensitive M170 brain response in children than the conventional adult MEG system. Conclusions: The present results show that the face-sensitive M170 brain response can be elicited in a four-year-old child. This provides new evidence for early maturation of face processing brain mechanisms in humans, and offers new opportunities for the study of neurodevelopmental disorders that show atypical face processing capabilities, such as autism spectrum disorder. |
Karen S. Helfer; Adrian Staub Competing speech perception in older and younger adults: Behavioral and eye-movement evidence Journal Article In: Ear and Hearing, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 161–170, 2014. @article{Helfer2014,OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine eye-movement patterns in older and younger adults to identify differences in how they respond to both to-be-attended and to-be-ignored speech. DESIGN: The study described in this article used an eye-tracking paradigm to provide insight into the factors underlying competing speech understanding in older (n = 23) and younger (n = 22) listeners. Participants attended to a sentence presented in one ear and were instructed to click on a visually displayed word that was heard in that ear while their eye movements were monitored. A foil word also was shown on the screen. Either no sound, steady state noise, or competing speech was presented to the other ear. RESULTS: Comparisons between younger and older listeners on all three types of indicators measured in this study (percent correct, response time, and eye movement patterns) demonstrated that older adults were more greatly affected by competing speech than were younger adults. Differences between the groups could not be attributed to the presence of hearing loss in the older participants, as performance for all subjects was at ceiling in quiet and none of the performance metrics was significantly associated with degree of hearing loss. CONCLUSIONS: Results of this study support the idea that age-related changes other than lack of audibility or susceptibility to energetic masking negatively affect the ability to understand speech in the presence of a competing message. |
Andrea Helo; Sebastian Pannasch; Louah Sirri; Pia Rämä The maturation of eye movement behavior: Scene viewing characteristics in children and adults Book 103, 2014. @book{Helo2014,While the close link between eye movements and visual attention has often been demonstrated, recently distinct attentional modes have been associated with specific eye movement patterns. The ambient mode-serving the localization of objects and dominating early scene inspection-is expressed by short fixations and large saccade amplitudes. The focal mode-associated with the identification of object details and dominating later stages of scene exploration-is indicated by longer fixations embedded in short saccades. The relationship between these processing modes and eye movement characteristics has so far only been examined in adults. While studies in children revealed a maturation of oculomotor behavior up to adolescence, developmental aspects of the processing modes are still unknown. Here we explored these mechanisms by comparing eye movements during the inspection of naturalistic scenes. Therefore, gaze behavior from adults and children in four different age groups (2, 4-6, 6-8, 8-10. years old) was examined. We found a general effect of age, revealing that with age fixation durations decrease and saccade amplitudes increase. However, in all age groups fixations were shorter and saccades were longer at the beginning of scene inspection but fixations became longer and saccades became shorter over time. While saliency influenced eye guidance in the two youngest groups over the full inspection period, for the older groups this influence was found only at the beginning of scene inspection. The results reveal indications for ambient and focal processing strategies for as early as 2 years of age. |
Jinger Pan; Ming Yan; Jochen Laubrock; Hua Shu; Reinhold Kliegl Saccade-target selection of dyslexic children when reading Chinese Journal Article In: Vision Research, vol. 97, pp. 24–30, 2014. @article{Pan2014,This study investigates the eye movements of dyslexic children and their age-matched controls when reading Chinese. Dyslexic children exhibited more and longer fixations than age-matched control children, and an increase of word length resulted in a greater increase in the number of fixations and gaze durations for the dyslexic than for the control readers. The report focuses on the finding that there was a significant difference between the two groups in the fixation landing position as a function of word length in single-fixation cases, while there was no such difference in the initial fixation of multi-fixation cases. We also found that both groups had longer incoming saccade amplitudes while the launch sites were closer to the word in single fixation cases than in multi-fixation cases. Our results suggest that dyslexic children's inefficient lexical processing, in combination with the absence of orthographic word boundaries in Chinese, leads them to select saccade targets at the beginning of words conservatively. These findings provide further evidence for parafoveal word segmentation during reading of Chinese sentences. |
Angelina Paolozza; Carmen Rasmussen; Jacqueline Pei; Ana Hanlon-Dearman; Sarah M. Nikkel; Gail Andrew; Audrey McFarlane; Dawa Samdup; James N. Reynolds 263, 2014. @book{Paolozza2014a,Previous studies have demonstrated that children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) exhibit deficits in measures of eye movement control that probe aspects of visuospatial processing and working memory. The goal of the present study was to examine, in a large cohort of children with FASD, prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) but not FASD, and typically developing control children, the relationship between performance in eye movement tasks and standardized psychometric tests that assess visuospatial processing and working memory. Participants for this dataset were drawn from a large, multi-site investigation, and included children and adolescents aged 5-17 years diagnosed with an FASD (n=71), those with PAE but no clinical FASD diagnosis (n=20), and typically developing controls (n=111). Participants completed a neurobehavioral test battery and a series of saccadic eye movement tasks. The FASD group performed worse than controls on the psychometric and eye movement measures of working memory and visuospatial skills. Within the FASD group, digit recall, block recall, and animal sorting were negatively correlated with sequence errors on the memory-guided task, and arrows was negatively correlated with prosaccade endpoint error. There were no significant correlations in the control group. These data suggest that psychometric tests and eye movement control tasks may assess similar domains of cognitive function, and these assessment tools may be measuring overlapping brain regions damaged due to prenatal alcohol exposure. The results of this study demonstrate that eye movement control tasks directly relate to outcome measures obtained with psychometric tests and are able to assess multiple domains of cognition simultaneously, thereby allowing for an efficient and accurate assessment. |
Angelina Paolozza; Sarah Treit; Christian Beaulieu; James N. Reynolds 5, 2014. @book{Paolozza2014b,Response inhibition is the ability to suppress irrelevant impulses to enable goal-directed behavior. The underlying neural mechanisms of inhibition deficits are not clearly understood, but may be related to white matter connectivity, which can be assessed using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). The goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between response inhibition during the performance of saccadic eye movement tasks and DTI measures of the corpus callosum in children with or without Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD). Participants included 43 children with an FASD diagnosis (12.3 ± 3.1 years old) and 35 typically developing children (12.5 ± 3.0 years old) both aged 7-18, assessed at three sites across Canada. Response inhibition was measured by direction errors in an antisaccade task and timing errors in a delayed memory-guided saccade task. Manual deterministic tractography was used to delineate six regions of the corpus callosum and calculate fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), parallel diffusivity, and perpendicular diffusivity. Group differences in saccade measures were assessed using t-tests, followed by partial correlations between eye movement inhibition scores and corpus callosum FA and MD, controlling for age. Children with FASD made more saccade direction errors and more timing errors, which indicates a deficit in response inhibition. The only group difference in DTI metrics was significantly higher MD of the splenium in FASD compared to controls. Notably, direction errors in the antisaccade task were correlated negatively to FA and positively to MD of the splenium in the control, but not the FASD group, which suggests that alterations in connectivity between the two hemispheres of the brain may contribute to inhibition deficits in children with FASD. |
Eleni Papageorgiou; Rebecca J. McLean; Irene Gottlob Nystagmus in childhood Journal Article In: Pediatrics and Neonatology, vol. 55, no. 5, pp. 341–351, 2014. @article{Papageorgiou2014,Nystagmus is an involuntary rhythmic oscillation of the eyes, which leads to reduced visual acuity due to the excessive motion of images on the retina. Nystagmus can be grouped into infantile nystagmus (IN), which usually appears in the first 3-6 months of life, and acquired nystagmus (AN), which appears later. IN can be idiopathic or associated to albinism, retinal disease, low vision, or visual deprivation in early life, for example due to congenital cataracts, optic nerve hypoplasia, and retinal dystrophies, or it can be part of neurological syndromes and neurologic diseases. It is important to differentiate between infantile and acquired nystagmus. This can be achieved by considering not only the time of onset of the nystagmus, but also the waveform characteristics of the nystagmus. Neurological disease should be suspected when the nystagmus is asymmetrical or unilateral. Electrophysiology, laboratory tests, neurological, and imaging work-up may be necessary, in order to exclude any underlying ocular or systemic pathology in a child with nystagmus. Furthermore, the recent introduction of hand-held spectral domain optical coherence tomography (HH SD-OCT) provides detailed assessment of foveal structure in several pediatric eye conditions associated with nystagmus and it can been used to determine the underlying cause of infantile nystagmus. Additionally, the development of novel methods to record eye movements can help to obtain more detailed information and assist the diagnosis. Recent advances in the field of genetics have identified the FRMD7 gene as the major cause of hereditary X-linked nystagmus, which will possibly guide research towards gene therapy in the future. Treatment options for nystagmus involve pharmacological and surgical interventions. Clinically proven pharmacological treatments for nystagmus, such as gabapentin and memantine, are now beginning to emerge. In cases of obvious head posture, eye muscle surgery can be performed to shift the null zone of the nystagmus into the primary position, and also to alleviate neck problems that can arise due to an abnormal head posture. |
Didem Pehlivanoglu; Shivangi Jain; Robert Ariel; Paul Verhaeghen The ties to unbind: Age-related differences in feature (un)binding in working memory for emotional faces Journal Article In: Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 5, pp. 253, 2014. @article{Pehlivanoglu2014,In the present study, we investigated age-related differences in the processing of emotional stimuli. Specifically, we were interested in whether older adults would show deficits in unbinding emotional expression (i.e., either no emotion, happiness, anger, or disgust) from bound stimuli (i.e., photographs of faces expressing these emotions), as a hyper-binding account of age-related differences in working memory would predict. Younger and older adults completed different N-Back tasks (side-by-side 0-Back, 1-Back, 2-Back) under three conditions: match/mismatch judgments based on either the identity of the face (identity condition), the face's emotional expression (expression condition), or both identity and expression of the face (both condition). The two age groups performed more slowly and with lower accuracy in the expression condition than in the both condition, indicating the presence of an unbinding process. This unbinding effect was more pronounced in older adults than in younger adults, but only in the 2-Back task. Thus, older adults seemed to have a specific deficit in unbinding in working memory. Additionally, no age-related differences were found in accuracy in the 0-Back task, but such differences emerged in the 1-Back task, and were further magnified in the 2-Back task, indicating independent age-related differences in attention/STM and working memory. Pupil dilation data confirmed that the attention/STM version of the task (1-Back) is more effortful for older adults than younger adults. |
Carolyn Quam; Daniel Swingley Processing of lexical stress cues by young children Journal Article In: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, vol. 123, no. 1, pp. 73–89, 2014. @article{Quam2014,Although infants learn an impressive amount about their native-language phonological system by the end of the first year of life, after the first year children still have much to learn about how acoustic dimensions cue linguistic categories in fluent speech. The current study investigated what children have learned about how the acoustic dimension of pitch indicates the location of the stressed syllable in familiar words. Preschoolers (2.5- to 5-year-olds) and adults were tested on their ability to use lexical-stress cues to identify familiar words. Both age groups saw pictures of a bunny and a banana and heard versions of "bunny" and "banana" in which stress either was indicated normally with convergent cues (pitch, duration, amplitude, and vowel quality) or was manipulated such that only pitch differentiated the words' initial syllables. Adults (n=48) used both the convergent cues and the isolated pitch cue to identify the target words as they unfolded. Children (n=206) used the convergent stress cues but not pitch alone in identifying words. We discuss potential reasons for children's difficulty in exploiting isolated pitch cues to stress despite children's early sensitivity to pitch in language. These findings contribute to a view in which phonological development progresses toward the adult state well past infancy. |
Keith Rayner; Jinmian Yang; Susanne Schuett; Timothy J. Slattery The effect of foveal and parafoveal masks on the eye movements of older and younger readers Journal Article In: Psychology and Aging, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 205–212, 2014. @article{Rayner2014b,In the present study, we examined foveal and parafoveal processing in older compared with younger readers by using gaze-contingent paradigms with 4 conditions. Older and younger readers read sentences in which the text was either a) presented normally, b) the foveal word was masked as soon as it was fixated, c) all of the words to the left of the fixated word were masked, or d) all of the words to the right of the fixated word were masked. Although older and younger readers both found reading when the fixated word was masked quite difficult, the foveal mask increased sentence reading time more than 3-fold (3.4) for the older readers (in comparison with the control condition in which the sentence was presented normally) compared with the younger readers who took 1.3 times longer to read sentences in the foveal mask condition (in comparison with the control condition). The left and right parafoveal masks did not disrupt reading as severely as the foveal mask, though the right mask was more disruptive than the left mask. Also, there was some indication that the younger readers found the right mask condition relatively more disruptive than the left mask condition. |
Eric S. Allard; Elizabeth A. Kensinger Age-related differences in neural recruitment during the use of cognitive reappraisal and selective attention as emotion regulation strategies Journal Article In: Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 5, pp. 296, 2014. @article{Allard2014,The present study examined age differences in the timing and neural recruitment within lateral and medial PFC while younger and older adults hedonically regulated their responses to unpleasant film clips. When analyses focused on activity during the emotional peak of the film clip (the most emotionally salient portion of the film), several age differences emerged. When comparing regulation to passive viewing (combined effects of selective attention and reappraisal) younger adults showed greater regulation related activity in lateral PFC (DLPFC, VLPFC, OFC) and medial PFC (ACC) while older adults showed greater activation within a region DLPFC. When assessing distinct effects of the regulation conditions, an ANOVA revealed a significant Age x Regulation Condition interaction within bilateral DLPFC and ACC; older adults but not young adults showed greater recruitment within these regions for reappraisal than selective attention. When examining activity at the onset of the film clip and at its emotional peak, the timing of reappraisal-related activity within VLPFC differed between age groups: younger adults showed greater activity at film onset while older adults showed heightened activity during the peak. Our results suggest that older adults rely more heavily on PFC recruitment when engaging cognitively demanding reappraisal strategies while PFC-mediated regulation might not be as task-specific for younger adults. Older adults' greater reliance on cognitive control processing during emotion regulation may also be reflected in the time needed to implement these strategies. |
Eric S. Allard; Elizabeth A. Kensinger Age-related differences in functional connectivity during cognitive emotion regulation Journal Article In: Journals of Gerontology - Series B Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, vol. 69, no. 6, pp. 852–860, 2014. @article{Allard2014a,OBJECTIVES: Successful emotion regulation partly depends on our capacity to modulate emotional responses through the use of cognitive strategies. Age may affect the strategies employed most often; thus, we examined younger and older adults' neural network connectivity when employing two different strategies: cognitive reappraisal and selective attention.$$n$$nMETHOD: The current study used psychophysiological interaction analyses to examine functional connectivity with a region of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) because it is a core part of an emotion regulation network showing relative structural preservation with age.$$n$$nRESULTS: Functional connectivity between ACC and prefrontal cortex (PFC) was greater for reappraisal relative to selective attention and passive viewing conditions for both age groups. For younger adults, ACC was more strongly connected with lateral dorsolateral PFC, ventrolateral PFC, dorsomedial PFC, and posterior cingulate regions during reappraisal. For older adults, stronger connectivity during reappraisal was observed primarily in ventromedial PFC and orbitofrontal cortex.$$n$$nDISCUSSION: Our results suggest that although young and older adults engage PFC networks during regulation, and particularly during reappraisal, the regions within these networks might differ. Additionally, these results clarify that, despite prior evidence for age-related declines in the structure and function of those regions, older adults are able to recruit ACC and PFC regions as part of coherent network during emotion regulation. |
Ted S. Altschuler; Sophie Molholm; John S. Butler; Manuel R. Mercier; Alice B. Brandwein; John J. Foxe In: NeuroImage, vol. 90, pp. 360–373, 2014. @article{Altschuler2014,The adult human visual system can efficiently fill-in missing object boundaries when low-level information from the retina is incomplete, but little is known about how these processes develop across childhood. A decade of visual-evoked potential (VEP) studies has produced a theoretical model identifying distinct phases of contour completion in adults. The first, termed a perceptual phase, occurs from approximately 100-200. ms and is associated with automatic boundary completion. The second is termed a conceptual phase occurring between 230 and 400. ms. The latter has been associated with the analysis of ambiguous objects which seem to require more effort to complete. The electrophysiological markers of these phases have both been localized to the lateral occipital complex, a cluster of ventral visual stream brain regions associated with object-processing. We presented Kanizsa-type illusory contour stimuli, often used for exploring contour completion processes, to neurotypical persons ages 6-31 (N. = 63), while parametrically varying the spatial extent of these induced contours, in order to better understand how filling-in processes develop across childhood and adolescence. Our results suggest that, while adults complete contour boundaries in a single discrete period during the automatic perceptual phase, children display an immature response pattern-engaging in more protracted processing across both timeframes and appearing to recruit more widely distributed regions which resemble those evoked during adult processing of higher-order ambiguous figures. However, children older than 5. years of age were remarkably like adults in that the effects of contour processing were invariant to manipulation of contour extent. |
Carol L. Baym; Naiman A. Khan; Jim M. Monti; Lauren B. Raine; Eric S. Drollette; R. Davis Moore; Mark R. Scudder; Arthur F. Kramer; Charles H. Hillman; Neal J. Cohen Dietary lipids are differentially associated with hippocampal-dependent relational memory in prepubescent children Journal Article In: American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 99, no. 5, pp. 1026–1033, 2014. @article{Baym2014,BACKGROUND: Studies in rodents and older humans have shown that the hippocampus-a brain structure critical to relational/associative memory-has remarkable plasticity as a result of lifestyle factors (eg, exercise). However, the effect of dietary intake on hippocampal-dependent memory during childhood has remained unexamined.$$n$$nOBJECTIVE: We investigated the cross-sectional relation of dietary components characteristic of the Western diet, including saturated fatty acids (SFAs), omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids, and refined sugar, with hippocampal-dependent relational memory in prepubescent children.$$n$$nDESIGN: Participants aged 7-9 y (n = 52) reported their dietary intake by using the Youth-Adolescent Food-Frequency Questionnaire and completed memory tasks designed to assess relational (hippocampal-dependent) and item (hippocampal-independent) memory. Performance on the memory tasks was assessed with both direct (accuracy) and indirect (eye movement) measures.$$n$$nRESULTS: Partial correlations adjusted for body mass index showed a positive relation between relational memory accuracy and intake of omega-3 fatty acids and a negative relation of both relational and item memory accuracy with intake of SFAs. Potential confounding factors of age, sex, intelligence quotient, socioeconomic status, pubertal timing, and aerobic fitness (maximal oxygen volume) were not significantly related to any of the dietary intake measures. Eye movement measures of relational memory (preferential viewing to the target stimulus) showed a negative relation with intake of added sugar.$$n$$nCONCLUSIONS: SFA intake was negatively associated with both forms of memory, whereas omega-3 fatty acid intake was selectively positively associated with hippocampal-dependent relational memory. These findings are among the first to show a link between habitual dietary intake and cognitive health as pertaining to hippocampal function in childhood. |
Arielle Borovsky; Sarah C. Creel Children and adults integrate talker and verb information in online processing Journal Article In: Developmental Psychology, vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 1600–1613, 2014. @article{Borovsky2014,Children seem able to efficiently interpret a variety of linguistic cues during speech comprehension, yet have difficulty interpreting sources of nonlinguistic and paralinguistic information that accompany speech. The current study asked whether (paralinguistic) voice-activated role knowledge is rapidly interpreted in coordination with a linguistic cue (a sentential action) during speech comprehension in an eye-tracked sentence comprehension task with children (ages 3-10 years) and college-aged adults. Participants were initially familiarized with 2 talkers who identified their respective roles (e.g., PRINCESS and PIRATE) before hearing a previously introduced talker name an action and object ("I want to hold the sword," in the pirate's voice). As the sentence was spoken, eye movements were recorded to 4 objects that varied in relationship to the sentential talker and action (target: SWORD, talker-related: SHIP, action-related: WAND, and unrelated: CARRIAGE). The task was to select the named image. Even young child listeners rapidly combined inferences about talker identity with the action, allowing them to fixate on the target before it was mentioned, although there were developmental and vocabulary differences on this task. Results suggest that children, like adults, store real-world knowledge of a talker's role and actively use this information to interpret speech. |
Arielle Borovsky; Kim Sweeney; Jeffrey L. Elman; Anne Fernald Real-time interpretation of novel events across childhood Journal Article In: Journal of Memory and Language, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 1–14, 2014. @article{Borovsky2014a,Despite extensive evidence that adults and children rapidly integrate world knowledge to generate expectancies for upcoming language, little work has explored how this knowledge is initially acquired and used. We explore this question in 3- to 10-year-old children and adults by measuring the degree to which sentences depicting recently learned connections between agents, actions and objects lead to anticipatory eye-movements to the objects. Combinatory information in sentences about agent and action elicited anticipatory eye-movements to the Target object in adults and older children. Our findings suggest that adults and school-aged children can quickly activate information about recently exposed novel event relationships in real-time language processing. However, there were important developmental differences in the use of this knowledge. Adults and school-aged children used the sentential agent and action to predict the sentence final theme, while preschool children's fixations reflected a simple association to the currently spoken item. We consider several reasons for this developmental difference and possible extensions of this paradigm. |
Marie Line Bosse; Sonia Kandel; Chloé Prado; Sylviane Valdois Does visual attention span relate to eye movements during reading and copying? Book 38, 2014. @book{Bosse2014,This research investigated whether text reading and copying involve visual attention-processing skills. Children in grades 3 and 5 read and copied the same text. We measured eye movements while reading and the number of gaze lifts (GL) during copying. The children were also administered letter report tasks that constitute an estimation of the number of letters that are processed simultaneously. The tasks were designed to assess visual attention span abilities (VA). The results for both grades revealed that the children who reported more letters, i.e., processed more consonants in parallel, produced fewer rightward fixations during text reading suggesting they could process more letters at each fixation. They also copied more letters per gaze lift from the same text. Furthermore, a regression analysis showed that VA span predicted variations in copying independently of the influence of reading skills. The findings support a role of VA span abilities in the early extraction of orthographic information, for both reading and copying tasks. |
David P. Crabb; Nicholas D. Smith; Haogang Zhu What's on TV? Detecting age-related neurodegenerative eye disease using eye movement scanpaths Journal Article In: Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, vol. 6, pp. 312, 2014. @article{Crabb2014,PURPOSE: We test the hypothesis that age-related neurodegenerative eye disease can be detected by examining patterns of eye movement recorded whilst a person naturally watches a movie.$$n$$nMETHODS: Thirty-two elderly people with healthy vision (median age: 70, interquartile range [IQR] 64-75 years) and 44 patients with a clinical diagnosis of glaucoma (median age: 69, IQR 63-77 years) had standard vision examinations including automated perimetry. Disease severity was measured using a standard clinical measure (visual field mean deviation; MD). All study participants viewed three unmodified TV and film clips on a computer set up incorporating the Eyelink 1000 eyetracker (SR Research, Ontario, Canada). Eye movement scanpaths were plotted using novel methods that first filtered the data and then generated saccade density maps. Maps were then subjected to a feature extraction analysis using kernel principal component analysis (KPCA). Features from the KPCA were then classified using a standard machine based classifier trained and tested by a 10-fold cross validation which was repeated 100 times to estimate the confidence interval (CI) of classification sensitivity and specificity.$$n$$nRESULTS: Patients had a range of disease severity from early to advanced (median [IQR] right eye and left eye MD was -7 [-13 to -5] dB and -9 [-15 to -4] dB, respectively). Average sensitivity for correctly identifying a glaucoma patient at a fixed specificity of 90% was 79% (95% CI: 58-86%). The area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve was 0.84 (95% CI: 0.82-0.87).$$n$$nCONCLUSIONS: Huge data from scanpaths of eye movements recorded whilst people freely watch TV type films can be processed into maps that contain a signature of vision loss. In this proof of principle study we have demonstrated that a group of patients with age-related neurodegenerative eye disease can be reasonably well separated from a group of healthy peers by considering these eye movement signatures alone. |
Sarah C. Creel Impossible to _gnore: Word-form inconsistency slows preschool children's word-learning Journal Article In: Language Learning and Development, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 68–95, 2014. @article{Creel2014,Many studies have examined language acquisition under morphosyntactic or semantic inconsistency, but few have considered word-form inconsistency. Many young learners encounter word-form inconsistency due to accent variation in their communities. The current study asked how preschoolers recognize accent-variants of newly learned words. Can preschoolers generalize recognition based on partial match to the learned form? When learning in two accents simultaneously, do children ignore inconsistent elements, or encode two word forms (one per accent)? Three- to 5-year-olds learned words in a novel-word learning paradigm but did not generalize to new accent-like pronunciations (Experiment 1) unless familiar-word recognition trials were interspersed (Experiments 3 and 4), which apparently generated a familiar-word-recognition pragmatic context. When exposure included two accent-variants per word, children were less accurate (Experiment 2) and slower to look to referents (Experiments 2, 5) relative to one-accent learning. Implications for language learning and accent processing over development are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved) |
Sarah C. Creel Tipping the scales: Auditory cue weighting changes over development Journal Article In: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 1146–1160, 2014. @article{Creel2014a,How does auditory processing change over development? This study assessed preschoolers' and adults' sensitivity to pitch contour, pitch height, and timbre in an association-memory paradigm, with both explicit (overt recognition) and implicit measures (visual fixations to melody-linked objects). In the first 2 experiments, child and adult participants associated each of 2 melodies with a cartoon picture, and recognition was tested. Experiment 1 pitted pitch contour cues against pitch height cues, and Experiment 2 pitted contour cues against timbre cues. Although adults were sensitive to multiple cues, children responded predominantly based on pitch height and timbre, with little sensitivity to pitch contour. In Experiment 3, however, children detected changes to all 3 cues well above chance levels. Results overall suggest that contour differences, although readily perceptible, are less memorable to children than to adults. Gradual perceptual learning over development may increase the memorability of pitch contour. |
Sarah C. Creel Preschoolers' flexible use of talker information during word learning Book 73, 2014. @book{Creel2014b,Previous research suggests that preschool-aged children use novel information about talkers' preferences (e.g. favorite colors) to guide on-line language processing. But can children encode information about talkers while simultaneously learning new words, and if so, how is talker information encoded? In five experiments, children learned pairs of early-overlapping words (geeb, geege); a particular talker spoke each word. Across experiments, children learned labels for novel referents, showing an advantage for original-voice repetitions of words which appeared to stem mainly from semantic person-referent mappings (who liked what referent). Specifically, children looked to voice-matched referents when a talker asked for their own favorite ("I want to see the geege") or when the liker was unspecified ("Point to the geege"), but they looked to voice mismatched referents when a talker asked on behalf of the other talker ("Conor wants to see the geege"). Initial looks to voice-matched referents were flexibly corrected when later information became available (Anna saying "Find the geege for Conor"). Voice-matching looks vanished when talkers labeled the other talker's favorite referent during learning, possibly because children had learned two conflicting person-referent mappings: Anna likes-geeb vs. Anna talks-about-geege. Results imply that children's language input may be conditioned on talker context quite early in language learning. textcopyright2014 Elsevier Inc. |
2013 |
Kenn Apel; Danielle Brimo; Elizabeth B Wilson-Fowler; Christian Vorstius; Ralph Radach Children develop initial orthographic knowledge during storybook reading Journal Article In: Scientific Studies of Reading, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 286–302, 2013. @article{Apel2013,We examined whether young children acquire orthographic knowledge during structured adult-led storybook reading even though minimal viewing time is devoted to print. Sixty-two kindergarten children were read 12 storybook ?chapters? while their eye movements were tracked. Results indicated that the children quickly acquired initial mental graphemic representations of target nonwords. This learning occurred even though they focused on the target nonwords approximately one fourth of the total time while viewing the pages. Their ability to acquire the initial orthographic representations of the target nonwords and their viewing time was affected by the linguistic statistical regularities of the words. The results provide evidence of orthographic learning during structured storybook reading and for the use of implicit linguistic statistical regularities for learning new orthographic word forms in the early stages of reading development. |
Senay Aydin; Niall C. Strang; Velitchko Manahilov Age-related deficits in attentional control of perceptual rivalry Journal Article In: Vision Research, vol. 77, pp. 32–40, 2013. @article{Aydin2013,Some aspects of attentional processing are known to decline with normal aging. To understand how age affects the attentional control of perceptual stability, we investigated age-related changes in voluntarily controlled perceptual rivalry. Durations of the dominant percept, produced by an ambiguous Rubin vase-faces figure, were measured in conditions that required passive viewing and attentional control: holding and switching the dominant percept. During passive viewing, mean dominance duration in the older group was significantly longer (63%) than the dominance duration found in the young group. This age-related deficit could be due to a decline in the apparent strength of the alternating percepts as a result of higher contrast gain of visual cortical activity and a reduction in the amount of attentional resources allocated to the ambiguous stimulus in older people compared to young adults. In comparison to passive viewing, holding the dominant percept did not significantly alter the dominance durations in the older group, while the dominance durations in the young group were increased ($sim$100%). The dominance durations for both age groups in switch conditions were reduced compared to their passive viewing durations ($sim$40%). The inability of older people to voluntarily prolong the duration of the dominant percept suggests that they may have abnormal attentional mechanisms, which are inefficient at enhancing the effective strength of the dominant percept. Results suggest that older adults have difficulty holding attended visual objects in focus, a problem that could affect their ability to carry out everyday tasks. |
Elika Bergelson; Daniel Swingley The acquisition of abstract words by young infants Journal Article In: Cognition, vol. 127, no. 3, pp. 391–397, 2013. @article{Bergelson2013,Young infants' learning of words for abstract concepts like 'all gone' and 'eat,' in contrast to their learning of more concrete words like 'apple' and 'shoe,' may follow a relatively protracted developmental course. We examined whether infants know such abstract words. Parents named one of two events shown in side-by-side videos while their 6-16-month-old infants (n= 98) watched. On average, infants successfully looked at the named video by 10. months, but not earlier, and infants' looking at the named referent increased robustly at around 14. months. Six-month-olds already understand concrete words in this task (Bergelson & Swingley, 2012). A video-corpus analysis of unscripted mother-infant interaction showed that mothers used the tested abstract words less often in the presence of their referent events than they used concrete words in the presence of their referent objects. We suggest that referential uncertainty in abstract words' teaching conditions may explain the later acquisition of abstract than concrete words, and we discuss the possible role of changes in social-cognitive abilities over the 6-14. month period. |
Elika Bergelson; Daniel Swingley Young toddlers' word comprehension is flexible and efficient Journal Article In: PLoS ONE, vol. 8, no. 8, pp. e73359, 2013. @article{Bergelson2013a,Much of what is known about word recognition in toddlers comes from eyetracking studies. Here we show that the speed and facility with which children recognize words, as revealed in such studies, cannot be attributed to a task-specific, closed-set strategy; rather, children's gaze to referents of spoken nouns reflects successful search of the lexicon. Toddlers' spoken word comprehension was examined in the context of pictures that had two possible names (such as a cup of juice which could be called "cup" or "juice") and pictures that had only one likely name for toddlers (such as "apple"), using a visual world eye-tracking task and a picture-labeling task (n = 77, mean age, 21 months). Toddlers were just as fast and accurate in fixating named pictures with two likely names as pictures with one. If toddlers do name pictures to themselves, the name provides no apparent benefit in word recognition, because there is no cost to understanding an alternative lexical construal of the picture. In toddlers, as in adults, spoken words rapidly evoke their referents. |
Lok-Kin Yeung; Jennifer D. Ryan; Rosemary A. Cowell; Morgan D. Barense Recognition memory impairments caused by false recognition of novel objects Journal Article In: Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, vol. 142, no. 4, pp. 1384–1397, 2013. @article{Yeung2013,A fundamental assumption underlying most current theories of amnesia is that memory impairments arise because previously studied information either is lost rapidly or is made inaccessible (i.e., the old information appears to be new). Recent studies in rodents have challenged this view, suggesting instead that under conditions of high interference, recognition memory impairments following medial temporal lobe damage arise because novel information appears as though it has been previously seen. Here, we developed a new object recognition memory paradigm that distinguished whether object recognition memory impairments were driven by previously viewed objects being treated as if they were novel or by novel objects falsely recognized as though they were previously seen. In this indirect, eyetracking-based passive viewing task, older adults at risk for mild cognitive impairment showed false recognition to high-interference novel items (with a significant degree of feature overlap with previously studied items) but normal novelty responses to low-interference novel items (with a lower degree of feature overlap). The indirect nature of the task minimized the effects of response bias and other memory-based decision processes, suggesting that these factors cannot solely account for false recognition. These findings support the counterintuitive notion that recognition memory impairments in this memory-impaired population are not characterized by forgetting but rather are driven by the failure to differentiate perceptually similar objects, leading to the false recognition of novel objects as having been seen before. |
Alwine Lenzner; Wolfgang Schnotz; Andreas Müller The role of decorative pictures in learning Journal Article In: Instructional Science, vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 811–831, 2013. @article{Lenzner2013,Three experiments with students from 7th and 8th grade were performed to investigate the effects of decorative pictures in learning as compared to instructional pictures. Pictures were considered as instructional, when they were primarily informative, and as decorative, when they were primarily aesthetically appealing. The experiments investigated, whether and to what extent decorative pictures affect the learner's distribution of attention, whether they have an effect on the affective and motivational state and whether they affect the learning outcomes. The first experiment indicated with eye-tracking methodology that decorative pictures receive only a bit initial attention as part of the learner's initial orientation and are largely ignored afterwards, which suggests that they have only a minor distracting effect if any. The second experiment showed that despite the small amount of attention they receive, decorative pictures seem to induce better mood, alertness and calmness with learners. The third experiment indicated that decorative pictures did not intensify students' situational interest, but reduced perceived difficulty of the learning material. Regarding outcomes of learning, decorative pictures were altogether neither harmful nor beneficial for learning. However, they moderated the beneficial effect of instructional pictures--in essence: the multimedia effect. The moderating effect was especially pronounced when learners had lower prior knowledge. The findings are discussed from the perspective of cognitive, affective and motivational psychology. Perspectives of further research are pointed out. |
Jingxin Wang; Jing Tian; Rong Wang; Valerie Benson Increased attentional focus modulates eye movements in a mixed antisaccade task for younger and older adults Journal Article In: PLoS ONE, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. e61566, 2013. @article{Wang2013b,We examined performance in the antisaccade task for younger and older adults by comparing latencies and errors in what we defined as high attentional focus (mixed antisaccades and prosaccades in the same block) and low attentional focus (antisaccades and prosaccades in separate blocks) conditions. Shorter saccade latencies for correctly executed eye movements were observed for both groups in mixed, compared to blocked, antisaccade tasks, but antisaccade error rates were higher for older participants across both conditions. The results are discussed in relation to the inhibitory hypothesis, the goal neglect theory and attentional control theory. |
David E. Warren; Matthew J. Thurtell; Joy N. Carroll; Michael Wall In: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, vol. 54, no. 8, pp. 5778–5787, 2013. @article{Warren2013,PURPOSE. Using a novel automated perimetry technique, we tested the hypothesis that older adults will have increased latency and decreased accuracy of saccades, as well as higher visual thresholds, to peripheral visual stimuli when compared with younger adults. METHODS. We tested 20 healthy subjects aged 18 to 30 years (‘‘young'') and 21 healthy subjects at least 60 years old (‘‘older'') for detection of briefly flashed peripheral stimuli of differing sizes in eight locations along the horizontal meridian (648, 6128, 6208, and 6288). With the left eye occluded, subjects were instructed to look quickly toward any seen stimuli. Right eye movements were recorded with an EyeLink 1000 infrared camera system. Limiting our analysis to the four stimulus positions in the nasal hemifield (?48, ?128, ?208, and ?288), we evaluated for group-level differences in saccadic latency, accuracy, and visual threshold at each stimulus location. RESULTS. Saccadic latency increased as stimulus size decreased in both groups. Older subjects had significantly increased saccadic latencies (at all locations; P < 0.05), decreased accuracies (at all locations; P < 0.05), and higher visual thresholds (at the ?128, ?208, and ?288 locations; P < 0.05). Additionally, there were significant relationships between visual threshold and latency, visual threshold and accuracy, and latency and accuracy (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS. Older adults have increased latency and decreased accuracy of saccades, as well as higher visual thresholds, to peripheral visual stimuli when compared with younger adults. Saccadic latency and accuracy are related to visual threshold, suggesting that saccadic latency and accuracy could be useful as perimetric outcome measures. |
Ming Yan; Jinger Pan; Jochen Laubrock; Reinhold Kliegl; Hua Shu Parafoveal processing efficiency in rapid automatized naming: A comparison between Chinese normal and dyslexic children Journal Article In: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, vol. 115, no. 3, pp. 579–589, 2013. @article{Yan2013,Dyslexic children are known to be slower than normal readers in rapid automatized naming (RAN). This suggests that dyslexics encounter local processing difficulties, which presumably induce a narrower perceptual span. Consequently, dyslexics should suffer less than normal readers from removing parafoveal preview. Here we used a gaze-contingent moving window paradigm in a RAN task to experimentally test this prediction. Results indicate that dyslexics extract less parafoveal information than control children. We propose that more attentional resources are recruited to the foveal processing because of dyslexics' less automatized translation of visual symbols into phonological output, thereby causing a reduction of the perceptual span. This in turn leads to less efficient preactivation of parafoveal information and, hence, more difficulty in processing the next foveal item. |
Mindaugas Mozuraitis; Craig G. Chambers; Meredyth Daneman Younger and older adults' use of verb aspect and world knowledge in the online interpretation of discourse Journal Article In: Discourse Processes, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 1–22, 2013. @article{Mozuraitis2013,Eye tracking was used to explore the role of grammatical aspect and world knowledge in establishing temporal relationships across sentences in discourse. Younger and older adult participants read short passages that included sentences such as Mrs. Adams was knitting/knitted a new sweater . . . She wore her new garment . . . . Readers had greater difficulty processing the second event (She wore...) if it followed the imperfective (was knitting) rather than the perfective (knitted) version of the earlier mentioned event. This suggests that aspect information is encoded online and that the “in progress” interpretation of the imperfective impeded integration of the second event into the discourse model. However, world knowledge modulated the effect: When the first event was of short duration (e.g., writing a check), the influence of aspect was not evident in the early moments of processing. These effects were independent of age group, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in coordinating temporal information in discourse are stable across the adult lifespan. |
Gabriella Óturai; Thorsten Kolling; Monika Knopf Relations between 18-month-olds' gaze pattern and target action performance: A deferred imitation study with eye tracking Journal Article In: Infant Behavior and Development, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 736–748, 2013. @article{Oturai2013,Deferred imitation studies are used to assess infants' declarative memory performance. These studies have found that deferred imitation performance improves with age, which is usually attributed to advancing memory capabilities. Imitation studies, however, are also used to assess infants' action understanding. In this second research program it has been observed that infants around the age of one year imitate selectively, i.e., they imitate certain kinds of target actions and omit others. In contrast to this, two-year-olds usually imitate the model's exact actions. 18-month-olds imitate more exactly than one-year-olds, but more selectively than two-year-olds, a fact which makes this age group especially interesting, since the processes underlying selective vs. exact imitation are largely debated. The question, for example, if selective attention to certain kinds of target actions accounts for preferential imitation of these actions in young infants is still open. Additionally, relations between memory capabilities and selective imitation processes, as well as their role in shaping 18-month-olds' neither completely selective, nor completely exact imitation have not been thoroughly investigated yet. The present study, therefore, assessed 18-month-olds' gaze toward two types of actions (functional vs. arbitrary target actions) and the model's face during target action demonstration, as well as infants' deferred imitation performance. Although infants' fixation times to functional target actions were not longer than to arbitrary target actions, they imitated the functional target actions more frequently than the arbitrary ones. This suggests that selective imitation does not rely on selective gaze toward functional target actions during the demonstration phase. In addition, a post hoc analysis of interindividual differences suggested that infants' attention to the model's social-communicative cues might play an important role in exact imitation, meaning the imitation of both functional and arbitrary target actions. |
Kevin B. Paterson; Victoria A. McGowan; Timothy R. Jordan Filtered text reveals adult age differences in reading: Evidence from eye movements Journal Article In: Psychology and Aging, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 352–364, 2013. @article{Paterson2013,Sensitivity to certain spatial frequencies declines with age and this may have profound effects on reading performance. However, the spatial frequency content of text actually used by older adults (aged 65+), and how this differs from that used by young adults (aged 18-30), remains to be determined. To investigate this issue, the eye movement behavior of young and older adult readers was assessed using a gaze-contingent moving-window paradigm in which text was shown normally within a region centered at the point of gaze, whereas text outside this region was filtered to contain only low, medium, or high spatial frequencies. For young adults, reading times were affected by spatial frequency content when windows of normal text extended up to nine characters wide. Within this processing region, the reading performance of young adults was affected little when text outside the window contained either only high or medium spatial frequencies, but was disrupted substantially when text contained only low spatial frequencies. By contrast, the reading performance of older adults was affected by spatial frequency content when windows extended up to 18 characters wide. Moreover, within this extended processing region, reading performance was disrupted when text contained any one band of spatial frequencies, but was disrupted most of all when text contained only high spatial frequencies. These findings indicate that older adults are sensitive to the spatial frequency content of text from a much wider region than young adults, and rely much more than young adults on coarse-scale components of text when reading. |
Kevin B. Paterson; Victoria A. McGowan; Timothy R. Jordan Effects of adult aging on reading filtered text: Evidence from eye movements Journal Article In: PeerJ, vol. 1, pp. 1–16, 2013. @article{Paterson2013a,Objectives. Sensitivity to spatial frequencies changes with age and this may have profound effects on reading. But how the actual contributions to reading performance made by the spatial frequency content of text differs between young (18-30 years) and older (65+ years) adults remains to be fully determined. Accordingly, we manipulated the spatial frequency content of text and used eye movement measures to assess the effects on reading performance in both age groups. Method. Sentences were displayed as normal or filtered to contain only very low, low, medium, high, or very high spatial frequencies. Reading time and eye movements were recorded as participants read each sentence. Results. Both age groups showed good overall reading ability and high levels of comprehension. However, for young adults, normal performance was impaired only by low and very low spatial frequencies, whereas normal performance for older adults was impaired by all spatial frequencies but least of all by medium. Conclusion. While both young and older adults read and comprehended well, reading ability was supported by different spatial frequencies in each age group. Thus, although spatial frequency sensitivity can change with age, adaptive responses to this change can help maintain reading performance in later life. |
Kevin B. Paterson; Victoria A. McGowan; Timothy R. Jordan Aging and the control of binocular fixations during reading Journal Article In: Psychology and Aging, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 789–795, 2013. @article{Paterson2013b,Older adults (65 ⫹ years) often have greater difficulty in reading than young adults (18–30 years). However, the extent to which this difficulty is attributable to impaired eye-movement control is uncertain. To address this issue, the alignment and location of the two eyes' fixations during reading were monitored for young and older adults. Older adults showed typical patterns of reading difficulty but the results revealed no age differences in the alignment or location of the two eyes' fixations. Thus, the difficulty older adults experience in reading is not related to oculomotor control, which appears to be preserved into older age. |
Keith Rayner; Jinmian Yang; Susanne Schuett; Timothy J. Slattery Eye movements of older and younger readers when reading unspaced text Journal Article In: Experimental Psychology, vol. 60, no. 5, pp. 354–361, 2013. @article{Rayner2013a,Older and younger readers read normal and unspaced text as their eye movements were monitored. A high or low frequency word was embedded in each sentence. Global analyses yielded large effects of spacing with unspaced text leading to much longer reading times for both groups, but the older readers had much more difficulty with unspaced text than younger readers. Local analyses of the target word revealed large main effects due to age, spacing, and frequency. In general, the older readers had more difficulty with the unspaced text than younger readers and some reasons why they did so are suggested. |
Stéphanie Ducrot; Joël Pynte; Alain Ghio; Bernard Lété Visual and linguistic determinants of the eyes' initial fixation position in reading development Journal Article In: Acta Psychologica, vol. 142, no. 3, pp. 287–298, 2013. @article{Ducrot2013,Two eye-movement experiments with one hundred and seven first- through fifth-grade children were conducted to examine the effects of visuomotor and linguistic factors on the recognition of words and pseudowords presented in central vision (using a variable-viewing-position technique) and in parafoveal vision (shifted to the left or right of a central fixation point). For all groups of children, we found a strong effect of stimulus location, in both central and parafoveal vision. This effect corresponds to the children's apparent tendency, for peripherally located targets, to reach a position located halfway between the middle and the left edge of the stimulus (preferred viewing location, PVL), whether saccading to the right or left. For centrally presented targets, refixation probability and lexical-decision time were the lowest near the word's center, suggesting an optimal viewing position (OVP). The viewing-position effects found here were modulated (1) by print exposure, both in central and parafoveal vision; and (2) by the intrinsic qualities of the stimulus (lexicality and word frequency) for targets in central vision but not for parafoveally presented targets. |
Caroline Ego; Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry; Marie-Cécile Nassogne; Demet Yüksel; Philippe Lefèvre The saccadic system does not compensate for the immaturity of the smooth pursuit system during visual tracking in children. Journal Article In: Journal of neurophysiology, vol. 110, no. 2, pp. 358–367, 2013. @article{Ego2013,Motor skills improve with age from childhood into adulthood, and this improvement is reflected in the performance of smooth pursuit eye movements. In contrast, the saccadic system becomes mature earlier than the smooth pursuit system. Therefore, the present study investigates whether the early mature saccadic system compensates for the lower pursuit performance during childhood. To answer this question, horizontal eye movements were recorded in 58 children (ages 5-16 yr) and 16 adults (ages 23-36 yr) in a task that required the combination of smooth pursuit and saccadic eye movements. Smooth pursuit performance improved with age. However, children had larger average position error during target tracking compared with adults, but they did not execute more saccades to compensate for their low pursuit performance despite the early maturity of their saccadic system. This absence of error correction suggests that children have a lower sensitivity to visual errors compared with adults. This reduced sensitivity might stem from poor internal models and longer processing time in young children. |
Mary Ann Evans; Jean Saint-Aubin Vocabulary acquisition without adult explanations in repeated shared book reading: An eye movement study Journal Article In: Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 105, no. 3, pp. 596–608, 2013. @article{Evans2013,When preschoolers listen to storybooks, are their eye movements related to their vocabulary acquisition in this context? This study addressed this question with 36 four-year-old French-speaking participants by assessing their general receptive vocabulary knowledge and knowledge of low-frequency words in 3 storybooks. These books were read verbatim to them 7 times over a 2-week interval. At the first and seventh reading, children's eye movements were tracked. Results revealed considerable stability in eye movements, with children spending the vast majority of their viewing time on the illustrations at both time points. Children made modest vocabulary gains on the words in the books, and as expected, these gains were related to their general receptive vocabulary. Most importantly, viewing time during the first reading on depictions of corresponding nouns in the story partially mediated the advantage that overall receptive vocabulary held. As such, this study points to active matching of picture with text during shared book reading and children's processing style when listening to stories as a mechanism for vocabulary acquisition. |
Maria J. S. Guerreiro; Dana R. Murphy; Pascal W. M. Van Gerven Making sense of age-related distractibility: The critical role of sensory modality Journal Article In: Acta Psychologica, vol. 142, no. 2, pp. 184–194, 2013. @article{Guerreiro2013,Older adults are known to have reduced inhibitory control and therefore to be more distractible than young adults. Recently, we have proposed that sensory modality plays a crucial role in age-related distractibility. In this study, we examined age differences in vulnerability to unimodal and cross-modal visual and auditory distraction. A group of 24 younger (mean age = 21.7. years) and 22 older adults (mean age = 65.4. years) performed visual and auditory n-back tasks while ignoring visual and auditory distraction. Whereas reaction time data indicated that both young and older adults are particularly affected by unimodal distraction, accuracy data revealed that older adults, but not younger adults, are vulnerable to cross-modal visual distraction. These results support the notion that age-related distractibility is modality dependent. |
2012 |
Hazel I. Blythe; Feifei Liang; Chuanli Zang; Jingxin Wang; Guoli Yan; Xuejun Bai; Simon P. Liversedge Inserting spaces into Chinese text helps readers to learn new words: An eye movement study Journal Article In: Journal of Memory and Language, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 241–254, 2012. @article{Blythe2012,We examined whether inserting spaces between words in Chinese text would help children learn to read new vocabulary. We recorded adults' and 7- to 10-year-old children's eye movements as they read new 2-character words, each embedded in four explanatory sentences (the learning session). Participants were divided into learning subgroups - half read word spaced sentences, and half read unspaced sentences. In the test session participants read the new words again, each in one new sentence; here, all participants read unspaced text. In the learning session, participants in the spaced group read the new words more quickly than participants in the unspaced group. Further, children in the spaced group maintained this benefit in the test session (unspaced text). In relation to three different models of Chinese lexical identification, we argue that the spacing manipulation allowed the children to form either stronger connections between the two characters' representations and the corresponding, novel word representation, or to form a more fully specified representation of the word itself. |
Elika Bergelson; Daniel Swingley At 6-9 months, human infants know the meanings of many common nouns Journal Article In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 109, no. 9, pp. 3253–3258, 2012. @article{Bergelson2012,It is widely accepted that infants begin learning their native language not by learning words, but by discovering features of the speech signal: consonants, vowels, and combinations of these sounds. Learning to understand words, as opposed to just perceiving their sounds, is said to come later, between 9 and 15 mo of age, when infants develop a capacity for interpreting others' goals and intentions. Here, we demonstrate that this consensus about the developmental sequence of human language learning is flawed: in fact, infants already know the meanings of several common words from the age of 6 mo onward. We presented 6- to 9-mo-old infants with sets of pictures to view while their parent named a picture in each set. Over this entire age range, infants directed their gaze to the named pictures, indicating their understanding of spoken words. Because the words were not trained in the laboratory, the results show that even young infants learn ordinary words through daily experience with language. This surprising accomplishment indicates that, contrary to prevailing beliefs, either infants can already grasp the referential intentions of adults at 6 mo or infants can learn words before this ability emerges. The precocious discovery of word meanings suggests a perspective in which learning vocabulary and learning the sound structure of spoken language go hand in hand as language acquisition begins. |
Rainer Beurskens; Otmar Bock Age-related decline of peripheral visual processing: The role of eye movements Journal Article In: Experimental Brain Research, vol. 217, no. 1, pp. 117–124, 2012. @article{Beurskens2012,Earlier work suggests that the area of space from which useful visual information can be extracted (useful field of view, UFoV) shrinks in old age. We investigated whether this shrinkage, documented previously with a visual search task, extends to a bimanual tracking task. Young and elderly subjects executed two concurrent tracking tasks with their right and left arms. The separation between tracking displays varied from 3 to 35 cm. Subjects were asked to fixate straight ahead (condition FIX) or were free to move their eyes (condition FREE). Eye position was registered. In FREE, young subjects tracked equally well at all display separations. Elderly subjects produced higher tracking errors, and the difference between age groups increased with display separation. Eye movements were comparable across age groups. In FIX, elderly and young subjects tracked less well at large display separations. Seniors again produced higher tracking errors in FIX, but the difference between age groups did not increase reliably with display separation. However, older subjects produced a substantial number of illicit saccades, and when the effect of those saccades was factored out, the difference between young and older subjects' tracking did increase significantly with display separation in FIX. We conclude that the age-related shrinkage of UFoV, previously documented with a visual search task, is observable with a manual tracking task as well. Older subjects seem to partly compensate their deficit by illicit saccades. Since the deficit is similar in both conditions, it may be located downstream from the convergence of retinal and oculomotor signals. |
Eileen E. Birch; Jingyun Wang; Joost Felius; David R. Stager; Richard W. Hertle Fixation control and eye alignment in children treated for dense congenital or developmental cataracts Journal Article In: Journal of AAPOS, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 156–160, 2012. @article{Birch2012,Background: Many children treated for cataracts develop strabismus and nystagmus; however, little is known about the critical period for adverse ocular motor outcomes with respect to age of onset and duration. Methods: Children who had undergone extraction of dense cataracts by the age of 5 years were enrolled postoperatively. Ocular alignment was assessed regularly throughout follow-up. Fixation stability and associated ocular oscillations were determined from eye movement recordings at ≥5 years old. Multivariate logistic regression was used to evaluate whether laterality (unilateral vs bilateral), age at onset, and/or duration of visual deprivation were associated with adverse ocular motor outcomes and to determine multivariate odds ratios (ORs). Results: A total of 41 children were included. Of these, 27 (66%) developed strabismus; 29 (71%) developed nystagmus. Congenital onset was associated with significant risk for strabismus (OR, 5.3; 95% CI, 1.1-34.1); infantile onset was associated with significant risk for nystagmus (OR, 13.6; 95% CI, 1.6-302). Duration >6 weeks was associated with significant risk for both strabismus (OR, 9.1; 95% CI, 1.9-54.2) and nystagmus (OR, 46.2; 95% CI, 6.0-1005). Congenital onset was associated with significant risk for interocular asymmetry in severity of nystagmus (OR, 25.0; 95% CI, 2.6-649), as was unilateral cataract (OR, 58.9; 95% CI, 5.1-2318). Conclusions: Laterality (unilateral vs bilateral) and age at onset were significant nonmodifiable risk factors for adverse ocular motor outcomes. Duration of deprivation was a significant modifiable risk factor for adverse ocular motor outcomes. The current study demonstrated that reduced risk for nystagmus and strabismus was associated with deprivation ≤6 weeks. |
Sarah C. Creel Preschoolers' use of talker information in on-line comprehension Journal Article In: Child Development, vol. 83, no. 6, pp. 2042–2056, 2012. @article{Creel2012,A crucial part of language development is learning how various social and contextual language-external factors constrain an utterance's meaning. This learning process is poorly understood. Five experiments addressed one hundred thirty-one 3- to 5-year-old children's use of one such socially relevant information source: talker characteristics. Participants learned 2 characters' favorite colors; then, those characters asked participants to select colored shapes, as eye movements were tracked. Results suggest that by preschool, children use voice characteristics predictively to constrain a talker's domain of reference, visually fixating the talker's preferred color shapes. Indicating flexibility, children used talker information when the talker made a request for herself but not when she made a request for the other character. Children's ease at using voice characteristics and possible developmental changes are discussed. |
Sarah C. Creel Phonological similarity and mutual exclusivity: On-line recognition of atypical pronunciations in 3-5-year-olds Journal Article In: Developmental Science, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 697–713, 2012. @article{Creel2012a,Recent research has considered the phonological specificity of children's word representations, but few studies have examined the flexibility of those representations. Tolerating acoustic-phonetic deviations has been viewed as a negative in terms of discriminating minimally different word forms, but may be a positive in an increasingly multicultural society where children encounter speakers with variable accents. To explore children's on-line processing of accented speech, preschoolers heard atypically pronounced words (e. g. 'fesh', from fish) and selected pictures from a four-item display as eye movements were tracked. Children recognized similarity between typical and accented variants, selecting the fish overwhelmingly when hearing 'fesh' (Experiment 1), even when a novel-picture alternative was present (Experiment 2). However, eye movements indicated slowed on-line recognition of accented relative to typical variants. Novel-picture selections increased with feature distance from familiar forms, but were similarly sensitive to vowel, onset, and coda changes (Experiment 3). Implications for child accent processing and mutual exclusivity are discussed. |
Maria J. S. Guerreiro; Jos J. Adam; Pascal W. M. Van Gerven Automatic selective attention as a function of sensory modality in aging Book The Journal of Gerontology, 67B: 194 � 202, 2012. @book{Guerreiro2012,Objectives. It was recently hypothesized that age-related differences in selective attention depend on sensory modality (Guerreiro, M. J. S., Murphy, D. R., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2010). The role of sensory modality in age-related distrac- tion: A critical review and a renewed view. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 975–1022. doi:10.1037/a0020731). So far, this hypothesis has not been tested in automatic selective attention. The current study addressed this issue by investigating age-related differences in automatic spatial cueing effects (i.e., facilitation and inhibition of return [IOR]) across sensory modalities. Methods. Thirty younger (mean age = 22.4 years) and 25 older adults (mean age = 68.8 years) performed 4 left–right target localization tasks, involving all combinations of visual and auditory cues and targets. We used stimulus onset asyn- chronies (SOAs) of 100, 500, 1,000, and 1,500 ms between cue and target. Results. The results showed facilitation (shorter reaction times with valid relative to invalid cues at shorter SOAs) in the unimodal auditory and in both cross-modal tasks but not in the unimodal visual task. In contrast, there was IOR (longer reaction times with valid relative to invalid cues at longer SOAs) in both unimodal tasks but not in either of the cross-modal tasks. Most important, these spatial cueing effects were independent of age. Discussion. The results suggest that the modality hypothesis of age-related differences in selective attention does not extend into the realm of automatic selective attention. |
Peng Zhou; Stephen Crain; Likan Zhan Sometimes children are as good as adults -- The pragmatic use of prosody in children's on-line sentence processing Journal Article In: Journal of Memory and Language, vol. 67, no. 8, pp. 149–164, 2012. @article{Zhou2012b,This study examined 4-year-old Mandarin-speaking children's sensitivity to prosodic cues in resolving speech act ambiguities, using eye-movement recordings. Most previous on- line studies have focused on children's use of prosody in resolving structural ambiguities. Although children have been found to be sensitive to prosodic information, they use such information less effectively than adults in on-line sentence processing. The present study takes advantage of special properties of Mandarin Chinese to investigate the role of pros- ody in children's on-line processing of ambiguities in which prosody serves to signal the illocutionary meaning of an utterance (i.e., whether the speaker is asking a question or making a statement). We found that the effect of prosody in this case was as robust in chil- dren as it was in adults. This suggests that children are as sensitive as adults in using pros- ody in on-line sentence processing, when prosody is used to resolve a pragmatic ambiguity. |
Peng Zhou; Yi Su; Stephen Crain; Liqun Gao; Likan Zhan Children's use of phonological information in ambiguity resolution: A view from Mandarin Chinese Journal Article In: Journal of Child Language, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 687–730, 2012. @article{Zhou2012c,How do children develop the mapping between prosody and other levels of linguistic knowledge? This question has received considerable attention in child language research. In the present study two experiments were conducted to investigate four- to five-year-old Mandarin-speaking children's sensitivity to prosody in ambiguity resolution. Experiment 1 used eye-tracking to assess children's use of stress in resolving structural ambiguities. Experiment 2 took advantage of special properties of Mandarin to investigate whether children can use intonational cues to resolve ambiguities involving speech acts. The results of our experiments show that children's use of prosodic information in ambiguity resolution varies depending on the type of ambiguity involved. Children can use prosodic information more effectively to resolve speech act ambiguities than to resolve structural ambiguities. This finding suggests that the mapping between prosody and semantics/pragmatics in young children is better established than the mapping between prosody and syntax. |
Shui-I Shih; Katie L. Meadmore; Simon P. Liversedge Aging, eye movements, and object-location memory Journal Article In: PLoS ONE, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. e33485, 2012. @article{Shih2012a,This study investigated whether "intentional" instructions could improve older adults' object memory and object-location memory about a scene by promoting object-oriented viewing. Eye movements of younger and older adults were recorded while they viewed a photograph depicting 12 household objects in a cubicle with or without the knowledge that memory about these objects and their locations would be tested (intentional vs. incidental encoding). After viewing, participants completed recognition and relocation tasks. Both instructions and age affected viewing behaviors and memory. Relative to incidental instructions, intentional instructions resulted in more accurate memory about object identity and object-location binding, but did not affect memory accuracy about overall positional configuration. More importantly, older adults exhibited more object-oriented viewing in the intentional than incidental condition, supporting the environmental support hypothesis. |
Quan Wang; Jantina Bolhuis; Constantin A. Rothkopf; Thorsten Kolling; Monika Knopf; Jochen Triesch Infants in control: Rapid anticipation of action outcomes in a gaze-contingent paradigm Journal Article In: PLoS ONE, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. e30884, 2012. @article{Wang2012f,Infants' poor motor abilities limit their interaction with their environment and render studying infant cognition notoriously difficult. Exceptions are eye movements, which reach high accuracy early, but generally do not allow manipulation of the physical environment. In this study, real-time eye tracking is used to put 6- and 8-month-old infants in direct control of their visual surroundings to study the fundamental problem of discovery of agency, i.e. the ability to infer that certain sensory events are caused by one's own actions. We demonstrate that infants quickly learn to perform eye movements to trigger the appearance of new stimuli and that they anticipate the consequences of their actions in as few as 3 trials. Our findings show that infants can rapidly discover new ways of controlling their environment. We suggest that gaze-contingent paradigms offer effective new ways for studying many aspects of infant learning and cognition in an interactive fashion and provide new opportunities for behavioral training and treatment in infants. |
Jim M. Monti; Charles H. Hillman; Neal J. Cohen Aerobic fitness enhances relational memory in preadolescent children: The FITKids randomized control trial Journal Article In: Hippocampus, vol. 22, no. 9, pp. 1876–1882, 2012. @article{Monti2012,It is widely accepted that aerobic exercise enhances hippocampal plasticity. Often, this plasticity co-occurs with gains in hippocampal-dependent memory. Cross-sectional work investigating this relationship in preadolescent children has found behavioral differences in higher versus lower aerobically fit participants for tasks measuring relational memory, which is known to be critically tied to hippocampal structure and function. The present study tested whether similar differences would arise in a clinical intervention setting where a group of preadolescent children were randomly assigned to a 9-month after school aerobic exercise intervention versus a wait-list control group. Performance measures included eye-movements as a measure of memory, based on recent work linking eye-movement indices of relational memory to the hippocampus. Results indicated that only children in the intervention increased their aerobic fitness. Compared to the control group, those who entered the aerobic exercise program displayed eye-movement patterns indicative of superior memory for face-scene relations, with no differences observed in memory for individual faces. The results of this intervention study provide clear support for the proposed linkage among the hippocampus, relational memory, and aerobic fitness, as well as illustrating the sensitivity of eye-movement measures as a means of assessing memory. |
Dan Morrow; Laura D'Andrea; Elizabeth A. L. Stine-Morrow; Matthew Shake; Sven Bertel; Jessie Chin; Katie Kopren; Xuefei Gao; Thembi Conner-Garcia; James Graumlich; Michael Murray Comprehension of multimedia health information among older adults with chronic illness Journal Article In: Visual Communication, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 347–362, 2012. @article{Morrow2012,The authors explored knowledge effects on comprehension of multimedia health information by older adults (age 60 or older). Participants viewed passages about hypertension, with text accompanied by relevant and irrelevant pictures, and then answered questions about the passage. Fixations on text and pictures were measured by eye-tracking. Participants with more knowledge of hypertension understood the passages better. This advantage was related to how they processed the passages: while knowledge differences were unrelated to overall time viewing displays, relationships between allocation and knowledge emerged when the data were partitioned into phases (during and after first reading the text). More knowledgeable participants spent relatively more time fixating text than pictures during the first pass. After this pass, they spent more time viewing the relevant picture rather than re-reading, with some evidence that this strategy was associated with comprehension. The findings have implications for designing multimedia education materials and analyzing eye-tracking measures during multimedia learning. |
Brennan R. Payne; Elizabeth A. L. Stine-Morrow Aging, parafoveal preview, and semantic integration in sentence processing: Testing the cognitive workload of wrap-up Journal Article In: Psychology and Aging, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 638–649, 2012. @article{Payne2012,The current study investigated the degree to which semantic-integration processes (“wrap-up”) during sentence understanding demand attentional resources by examining the effects of clause and sentence wrap-up on the parafoveal preview benefit (PPB) in younger and older adults. The PPB is defined as facilitation in processing word N + 1, based on information extracted while the eyes are fixated on word N, and is known to be reduced by processing difficulty at word N. Participants read passages in which word N occurred in a sentence-internal, clause-final, or sentence-final position, and a gaze-contingent boundary-change paradigm was used to manipulate the information available in parafoveal vision for word N + 1. Wrap-up effects were found on word N for both younger and older adults. Early-pass measures (first-fixation duration and single-fixation duration) of the PPB on word N + 1 were reduced by clause wrap-up and sentence wrap-up on word N, with similar effects for younger and older adults. However, for intermediate (gaze duration) and later-pass measures (regression-path duration, and selective regression-path duration), sentence wrap-up (but not clause wrap-up) on word N differentially reduced the PPB of word N + 1 for older adults. These findings suggest that wrap-up is demanding and may be less efficient with advancing age, resulting in a greater cognitive processing load for older readers. |
Jessica M. Price; Anthony J. Sanford Reading in healthy ageing: The influence of information structuring in sentences Journal Article In: Psychology and Aging, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 529–540, 2012. @article{Price2012,In three experiments, we investigated the cognitive effects of linguistic prominence to establish whether focus plays a similar or different role in modulating language processing in healthy ageing. Information structuring through the use of cleft sentences is known to increase the processing efficiency of anaphoric references to elements contained with a marked focus structure. It also protects these elements from becoming suppressed in the wake of subsequent information, suggesting selective mechanisms of enhancement and suppression. In Experiment 1 (using self-paced reading), we found that focus enhanced (faster) integration for anaphors referring to words contained within the scope of focus; but suppressed (slower) integration for anaphors to words contained outside of the scope of focus; and in some cases, the effects were larger in older adults. In Experiment 2 (using change detection), we showed that older adults relied more on the linguistic structure to enhance change detection when the changed word was in focus. In Experiment 3 (using delayed probe recognition and eye-tracking), we found that older adults recognized probes more accurately when they were made to elements within the scope of focus than when they were outside the scope of focus. These results indicate that older adults' ability to selectively attend or suppress concepts in a marked focus structure is preserved. |
2011 |
Mark B. Neider; Arthur F. Kramer Older adults capitalize on contextual information to guide search Journal Article In: Experimental Aging Research, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. 539–571, 2011. @article{Neider2011,Much has been learned about the age-related cognitive declines associated with the attentional processes that utilize perceptual features during visual search. However, questions remain regarding the ability of older adults to use scene information to guide search processes, perhaps as a compensatory mechanism for declines in perceptual processes. The authors had younger and older adults search pseudorealistic scenes for targets with strong or no spatial associations. Both younger and older adults exhibited reaction time benefits when searching for a target that was associated with a specific scene region. Eye movement analyses revealed that all observers dedicated most oftheir time to scanning target-consistent display regions and that guidance to these regions was often evident on the initial saccade ofa trial. Both the benefits and costs related to contextual information were larger for older adults, suggesting that this information was relied on heavily to guide search processes towards the target. |
Bettina Olk; Yu Jin Effects of aging on switching the response direction of pro-and antisaccades Journal Article In: Experimental Brain Research, vol. 208, no. 1, pp. 139–150, 2011. @article{Olk2011,The present study investigated effects of task switching between pro- and antisaccades and switching the direction of these saccades (response switching) on performance of younger and older adults. Participants performed single-task blocks, in which only pro- or only antisaccades had to be made as well as mixed-task blocks, in which pro- and antisaccades were required. Analysis of specific task switch effects in the mixed-task blocks showed switch costs for error rates for prosaccades for both groups, suggesting that antisaccade task rules persisted and affected the following prosaccade. The comparison between single- and mixed-task blocks showed that mixing costs were either equal or smaller for older than younger participants, indicating that the older participants were well able to keep task sets in working memory. The most prominent age difference that was observed for response switching was that for the older but not younger group task switching and response switching interacted, resulting in less errors when two consecutive antisaccades were made in the same direction. This finding is best explained with a facilitation of these consecutive antisaccades. The present study clearly demonstrated the impact of response switching and a difference between age groups, underlining the importance of considering this factor when investigating pro- and antisaccades, especially antisaccades, and when investigating task switching and aging. |
Caroline Paquette; Joyce Fung Old age affects gaze and postural coordination Journal Article In: Gait and Posture, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 227–232, 2011. @article{Paquette2011,Visual tracking of the surrounding environment is an important daily task, often executed simultaneously with the regulation of upright balance. Visual and postural coordination may be affected by aging which is associated with a decline in sensory and motor functions. The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of aging on the control of saccadic and smooth pursuit eye movements when standing on a moving surface. Nineteen young and 12 elderly subjects tracked a visual target presented as unpredictable smooth pursuit or saccadic displacements. Subjects were instructed to maintain gaze on target during quiet stance with or without yaw surface rotations. Elderly subjects followed both saccadic and pursuit targets with less accuracy than young subjects. Moreover, elderly subjects responded with longer time lags during saccadic target shifts and executed more catch-up saccades during smooth pursuits than younger subjects. Standing on a moving surface induced larger target-gaze errors. Catch-up saccades during pursuit occurred more frequently during surface perturbations. Our results suggest that visual tracking abilities decline with age and that postural challenge affects accuracy but not timing of gaze responses. Such declines observed with aging may result from multiple but minor sensory and motor deficits. |
Sarah Risse; Reinhold Kliegl Adult age differences in the perceptual span during reading Journal Article In: Psychology and Aging, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 451–460, 2011. @article{Risse2011,Following up on research suggesting an age-related reduction in the rightward extent of the perceptual span during reading (Rayner, Castelhano, & Yang, 2009), we compared old and young adults in an N + 2-boundary paradigm in which a nonword preview of word N + 2 or word N + 2 itself is replaced by the target word once the eyes cross an invisible boundary located after word N. The intermediate word N + 1 was always three letters long. Gaze durations on word N + 2 were significantly shorter for identical than nonword N + 2 preview both for young and for old adults, with no significant difference in this preview benefit. Young adults, however, did modulate their gaze duration on word N more strongly than old adults in response to the difficulty of the parafoveal word N + 1. Taken together, the results suggest a dissociation of preview benefit and parafoveal-on-foveal effect. Results are discussed in terms of age-related decline in resilience towards distributed processing while simultaneously preserving the ability to integrate parafoveal information into foveal processing. As such, the present results relate to proposals of regulatory compensation strategies older adults use to secure an overall reading speed very similar to that of young adults. |
Maria J. S. Guerreiro; Pascal W. M. Van Gerven Now you see it, now you don't: Evidence for age-dependent and age-independent cross-modal distraction Journal Article In: Psychology and Aging, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 415–426, 2011. @article{Guerreiro2011,Age-related deficits in selective attention have often been demonstrated in the visual modality and, to a lesser extent, in the auditory modality. In contrast, a mounting body of evidence has suggested that cross-modal selective attention is intact in aging, especially in visual tasks that require ignoring the auditory modality. Our goal in this study was to investigate age-related differences in the ability to ignore cross-modal auditory and visual distraction and to assess the role of cognitive control demands thereby. In a set of two experiments, 30 young (mean age = 23.3 years) and 30 older adults (mean age = 67.7 years) performed a visual and an auditory n-back task (0 ≤ n ≤ 2), with and without cross-modal distraction. The results show an asymmetry in cross-modal distraction as a function of sensory modality and age: Whereas auditory distraction did not disrupt performance on the visual task in either age group, visual distraction disrupted performance on the auditory task in both age groups. Most important, however, visual distraction was disproportionately larger in older adults. These results suggest that age-related distraction is modality dependent, such that suppression of cross-modal auditory distraction is preserved and suppression of cross-modal visual distraction is impaired in aging. |
Tuomo Häikiö; Raymond Bertram; Jukka Hyönä The development of whole-word representations in compound word processing: Evidence from eye fixation patterns of elementary school children Journal Article In: Applied Psycholinguistics, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 533–551, 2011. @article{Haeikioe2011,The role of morphology in reading development was examined by measuring participants' eye movements while they read sentences containing either a hyphenated (e.g., ulko-ovi “front door”) or concatenated (e.g., autopeli “racing game”) compound. The participants were Finnish second, fourth, and sixth graders (aged 8, 10, and 12 years, respectively). Fast second graders and all four and sixth graders read concatenated compounds faster than hyphenated compounds. This suggests that they resort to slower morpheme-based processing for hyphenated compounds but prefer to process concatenated compounds via whole-word representations. In contrast, slow second graders' fixation durations were shorter for hyphenated than concatenated compounds. This implies that they process all compounds via constituent morphemes and that hyphenation comes to aid in this process. |
Jennifer J. Heisz; Jennifer D. Ryan The effects of prior exposure on face processing in younger and older adults Journal Article In: Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, vol. 3, pp. 15, 2011. @article{Heisz2011,Older adults differ from their younger counterparts in the way they view faces. We assessed whether older adults can use past experience to mitigate these typical face-processing differences; that is, we examined whether there are age-related differences in the use of memory to support current processing. Eye movements of older and younger adults were monitored as they viewed faces that varied in the type/amount of prior exposure. Prior exposure was manipulated by including famous and novel faces, and by presenting faces up to five times. We expected that older adults may have difficulty quickly establishing new representations to aid in the processing of recently presented faces, but would be able to invoke face representations that have been stored in memory long ago to aid in the processing of famous faces. Indeed, younger adults displayed effects of recent exposure with a decrease in the total fixations to the faces and a gradual increase in the proportion of fixations to the eyes. These effects of recent exposure were largely absent in older adults. In contrast, the effect of fame, revealed by a subtle increase in fixations to the inner features of famous compared to non-famous faces, was similar for younger and older adults. Our results suggest that older adults' current processing can benefit from lifetime experience, however the full benefit of recent experience on face processing is not realized in older adults. |
David J. Kelly; Shaoying Liu; Helen Rodger; Sébastien Miellet; Liezhong Ge; Roberto Caldara Developing cultural differences in face processing Journal Article In: Developmental Science, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 1176–1184, 2011. @article{Kelly2011a,Perception and eye movements are affected by culture. Adults from Eastern societies (e.g. China) display a disposition to process information holistically, whereas individuals from Western societies (e.g. Britain) process information analytically. Recently, this pattern of cultural differences has been extended to face processing. Adults from Eastern cultures fixate centrally towards the nose when learning and recognizing faces, whereas adults from Western societies spread fixations across the eye and mouth regions. Although light has been shed on how adults can fixate different areas yet achieve comparable recognition accuracy, the reason why such divergent strategies exist is less certain. Although some argue that culture shapes strategies across development, little direct evidence exists to support this claim. Additionally, it has long been claimed that face recognition in early childhood is largely reliant upon external rather than internal face features, yet recent studies have challenged this theory. To address these issues, we tested children aged 7-12 years of age from the UK and China with an old/new face recognition paradigm while simultaneously recording their eye movements. Both populations displayed patterns of fixations that were consistent with adults from their respective cultural groups, which 'strengthened' across development as qualified by a pattern classifier analysis. Altogether, these observations suggest that cultural forces may indeed be responsible for shaping eye movements from early childhood. Furthermore, fixations made by both cultural groups almost exclusively landed on internal face regions, suggesting that these features, and not external features, are universally used to achieve face recognition in childhood. |
Yosuke Kita; Atsuko Gunji; Yuki Inoue; Takaaki Goto; Kotoe Sakihara; Makiko Kaga; Masumi Inagaki; Toru Hosokawa Self-face recognition in children with autism spectrum disorders: A near-infrared spectroscopy study Journal Article In: Brain and Development, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 494–503, 2011. @article{Kita2011,It is assumed that children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have specificities for self-face recognition, which is known to be a basic cognitive ability for social development. In the present study, we investigated neurological substrates and potentially influential factors for self-face recognition of ASD patients using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). The subjects were 11 healthy adult men, 13 normally developing boys, and 10 boys with ASD. Their hemodynamic activities in the frontal area and their scanning strategies (eye-movement) were examined during self-face recognition. Other factors such as ASD severities and self-consciousness were also evaluated by parents and patients, respectively. Oxygenated hemoglobin levels were higher in the regions corresponding to the right inferior frontal gyrus than in those corresponding to the left inferior frontal gyrus. In two groups of children these activities reflected ASD severities, such that the more serious ASD characteristics corresponded with lower activity levels. Moreover, higher levels of public self-consciousness intensified the activities, which were not influenced by the scanning strategies. These findings suggest that dysfunction in the right inferior frontal gyrus areas responsible for self-face recognition is one of the crucial neural substrates underlying ASD characteristics, which could potentially be used to evaluate psychological aspects such as public self-consciousness. |
Gustav Kuhn; Lauren Tewson; Lea Morpurgo; Susannah F. Freebody; Anna S. Musil; Susan R. Leekam Developmental changes in the control of saccadic eye movements in response to directional eye gaze and arrows Journal Article In: Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol. 64, no. 10, pp. 1919–1929, 2011. @article{Kuhn2011a,We investigated developmental differences in oculomotor control between 10-year-old children and adults using a central interference task. In this task, the colour of a fixation point instructed participants to saccade either to the left or to the right. These saccade directions were either congruent or incongruent with two types of distractor cue: either the direction of eye gaze of a centrally presented schematic face, or the direction of arrows. Children had greater difficulties inhibiting the distractor cues than did adults, which revealed itself in longer saccade latencies for saccades that were incongruent with the distractor cues as well as more errors on these incongruent trials than on congruent trials. Counter to our prediction, in terms of saccade latencies, both children and adults had greater difficulties inhibiting the arrow than the eye gaze distractors. |
Mehrnoosh Ahmadi; Mitra Judi; Anahita Khorrami; Javad Mahmoudi-Gharaei; Mehdi Tehrani-Doost Initial orientation of attention towards emotional faces in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Journal Article In: Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 87–91, 2011. @article{Ahmadi2011,OBJECTIVE: Early recognition of negative emotions is considered to be of vital importance. It seems that children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder have some difficulties recognizing facial emotional expressions, especially negative ones. This study investigated the preference of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder for negative (angry, sad) facial expressions compared to normal children. METHOD: Participants were 35 drug naive boys with ADHD, aged between 6-11 years,and 31 matched healthy children. Visual orientation data were recorded while participants viewed face pairs (negative-neutral pairs) shown for 3000ms. The number of first fixations made to each expression was considered as an index of initial orientation. RESULTS: Group comparisons revealed no difference between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder group and their matched healthy counterparts in initial orientation of attention. A tendency towards negative emotions was found within the normal group, while no difference was observed between initial allocation of attention toward negative and neutral expressions in children with ADHD. CONCLUSION: Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder do not have significant preference for negative facial expressions. In contrast, normal children have a significant preference for negative facial emotions rather than neutral faces. |
Boaz M. Ben-David; Craig G. Chambers; Meredyth Daneman; M. Kathleen Pichora-Fuller; Eyal M. Reingold; Bruce A. Schneider Effects of aging and noise on real-time spoken word recognition: Evidence from eye movements Journal Article In: Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, vol. 54, pp. 243–262, 2011. @article{BenDavid2011,PURPOSE: To use eye tracking to investigate age differences in real-time lexical processing in quiet and in noise in light of the fact that older adults find it more difficult than younger adults to understand conversations in noisy situations. METHOD: Twenty-four younger and 24 older adults followed spoken instructions referring to depicted objects, for example, "Look at the candle." Eye movements captured listeners' ability to differentiate the target noun (candle) from a similar-sounding phonological competitor (e.g., candy or sandal). Manipulations included the presence/absence of noise, the type of phonological overlap in target-competitor pairs, and the number of syllables. RESULTS: Having controlled for age-related differences in word recognition accuracy (by tailoring noise levels), similar online processing profiles were found for younger and older adults when targets were discriminated from competitors that shared onset sounds. Age-related differences were found when target words were differentiated from rhyming competitors and were more extensive in noise. CONCLUSIONS: Real-time spoken word recognition processes appear similar for younger and older adults in most conditions; however, age-related differences may be found in the discrimination of rhyming words (especially in noise), even when there are no age differences in word recognition accuracy. These results highlight the utility of eye movement methodologies for studying speech processing across the life span. |
Hazel I. Blythe; Tuomo Häikiö; Raymond Bertam; Simon P. Liversedge; Jukka Hyönä Reading disappearing text: Why do children refixate words? Journal Article In: Vision Research, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 84–92, 2011. @article{Blythe2011,We compared Finnish adults' and children's eye movements on long (8-letter) and short (4-letter) target words embedded in sentences, presented either normally or as disappearing text. When reading disappearing text, where refixations did not provide new information, the 8- to 9-year-old children made fewer refixations but more regressions back to long words compared to when reading normal text. This difference was not observed in the adults or 10- to 11-year-old children. We conclude that the younger children required a second visual sample on the long words, and they adapted their eye movement behaviour when reading disappearing text accordingly. |
Jessica P. K. Chan; Daphne Kamino; Malcolm A. Binns; Jennifer D. Ryan Can changes in eye movement scanning alter the age-related deficit in recognition memory? Journal Article In: Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 2, pp. 92, 2011. @article{Chan2011,Older adults typically exhibit poorer face recognition compared to younger adults. These recognition differences may be due to underlying age-related changes in eye movement scanning. We examined whether older adults' recognition could be improved by yoking their eye movements to those of younger adults. Participants studied younger and older faces, under free viewing conditions (bases), through a gaze-contingent moving window (own), or a moving window which replayed the eye movements of a base participant (yoked). During the recognition test, participants freely viewed the faces with no viewing restrictions. Own-age recognition biases were observed for older adults in all viewing conditions, suggesting that this effect occurs independently of scanning. Participants in the bases condition had the highest recognition accuracy, and participants in the yoked condition were more accurate than participants in the own condition. Among yoked participants, recognition did not depend on age of the base participant. These results suggest that successful encoding for all participants requires the bottom-up contribution of peripheral information, regardless of the locus of control of the viewer. Although altering the pattern of eye movements did not increase recognition, the amount of sampling of the face during encoding predicted subsequent recognition accuracy for all participants. Increased sampling may confer some advantages for subsequent recognition, particularly for people who have declining memory abilities. |
Minglei Chen; Hwa Wei Ko Exploring the eye-movement patterns as Chinese children read texts: A developmental perspective Journal Article In: Journal of Research in Reading, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 232–246, 2011. @article{Chen2011,This study was to investigate Chinese children's eye patterns while reading different text genres from a developmental perspective. Eye movements were recorded while children in the second through sixth grades read two expository texts and two narrative texts. Across passages, overall word frequency was not significantly different between the two genres. Results showed that all children had longer fixation durations for low-frequency words. They also had longer fixation durations on content words. These results indicate that children adopted a word-based processing strategy like skilled readers do. However, only older children's rereading times were affected by genre. Overall, eye-movement patterns of older children reported in this study are in accordance with those of skilled Chinese readers, but younger children are more likely to be responsive to word characteristics than text level when reading a Chinese text. |
Patrick Schleifer; Karin Landerl Subitizing and counting in typical and atypical development Journal Article In: Developmental Science, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 280–291, 2011. @article{Schleifer2011,Enumeration performance in standard dot counting paradigms was investigated for different age groups with typical and atypically poor development of arithmetic skills. Experiment 1 showed a high correspondence between response times and saccadic frequencies for four age groups with typical development. Age differences were more marked for the counting than the subitizing range. In Experiment 2 we found a discontinuity between subitizing and counting for dyscalculic children; however, their subitizing slopes were steeper than those of typically developing control groups, indicating a dysfunctional subitizing mechanism. Across both experiments a number of factors could be identified that affect enumeration in the subitizing and the counting range differentially. These differential patterns further support the assumption of two qualitatively different enumeration processes. |
Matthew C. Shake; Elizabeth A. L. Stine-Morrow Age differences in resolving anaphoric expressions during reading Journal Article In: Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 678–707, 2011. @article{Shake2011,One crucial component of reading comprehension is the ability to bind current information to earlier text, which is often accomplished via anaphoric expressions (e.g., pronouns referring to previous nouns). Processing time for anaphors that violate expectations (e.g., 'The firefighter burned herself while rescuing victims from the building') provide a window into how the semantic representation of the referent is instantiated and retained up to the anaphor. We present data from three eye-tracking experiments examining older and younger adults' reading patterns for passages containing such local expectancy violations. Younger adults quickly registered and resolved the expectancy violation at the point at which it first occurred (as measured by increased gaze duration on the anaphor), regardless of whether sentences were read in isolation or embedded in a discourse context. Older adults, however, immediately noticed the violation only when sentences were embedded in discourse context, suggesting that they relied more on situational grounding to instantiate the referent. For neither young nor old did prior disambiguation within the context (e.g., stating the firefighter was a woman) reduce the effect of the local violation on early processing. For older readers, however, prior disambiguation facilitated anaphor resolution by reducing reprocessing. These results suggest that (a) anaphor resolution unfolds serially, such that prior disambiguating context does not 'inoculate' against local activation of salient (but contextually inappropriate) features, and that (b) older readers use the situational grounding of discourse context to support earlier access to the antecedent, and are more likely to reprocess the context for anaphor resolution. |
Viola S. Stormer; Shu-Chen Li; Hauke R. Heekeren; Ulman Lindenberger Feature-based interference from unattended visual field during attentional tracking in younger and older adults Journal Article In: Journal of Vision, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 1–12, 2011. @article{Stormer2011,The ability to attend to multiple objects that move in the visual field is important for many aspects of daily functioning. The attentional capacity for such dynamic tracking, however, is highly limited and undergoes age-related decline. Several aspects of the tracking process can influence performance. Here, we investigated effects of feature-based interference from distractor objects that appear in unattended regions of the visual field with a hemifield-tracking task. Younger and older participants performed an attentional tracking task in one hemifield while distractor objects were concurrently presented in the unattended hemifield. Feature similarity between objects in the attended and unattended hemifields as well as motion speed and the number of to-be-tracked objects were parametrically manipulated. The results show that increasing feature overlap leads to greater interference from the unattended visual field. This effect of feature-based interference was only present in the slow speed condition, indicating that the interference is mainly modulated by perceptual demands. High-performing older adults showed a similar interference effect as younger adults, whereas low-performing adults showed poor tracking performance overall. |
2010 |
Elizabeth A. L. Stine-Morrow; Matthew C. Shake; Joseph R. Miles; Kenton Lee; Xuefei Gao; George W. McConkie Pay now or pay later: Aging and the role of boundary salience in self-regulation of conceptual Iintegration in sentence processing Journal Article In: Psychology and Aging, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 168–176, 2010. @article{StineMorrow2010,Previous research has suggested that older readers may self-regulate input during reading differently from the way younger readers do, so as to accommodate age-graded change in processing capacity. For example, older adults may pause more frequently for conceptual integration. Presumably, such an allocation policy would enable older readers to manage the cognitive demands of constructing a semantic representation of the text by off-loading the products of intermediate computations to long-term memory, thus decreasing memory demands as conceptual load increases. This was explicitly tested in 2 experiments measuring word-by-word reading time for sentences in which boundary salience was manipulated but in which semantic content was controlled. With both a computer-based moving-window paradigm that permits only forward eye movements, and an eye-tracking paradigm that allows measurement of regressive eye movements, we found evidence for the proposed tradeoff between early and late wrap-up. Across the 2 experiments, age groups were more similar than different in regulating processing time. However, older adults showed evidence of exaggerated early wrap-up in both experiments. These data are consistent with the notion that readers opportunistically regulate effort and that older readers can use this to good advantage to maintain comprehension. |
Menno Schoot; Tako M. Horsley; Ernest C. D. M. Van Lieshout The effects of instruction on situation model construction: An eye fixation study on text comprehension in primary school children Journal Article In: Educational Psychology, vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 817–835, 2010. @article{Schoot2010,This study examined whether the formation of a situation model can be encouraged by a situation‐focused instruction in primary school children. To achieve this, the standard reading‐for‐comprehension instruction was adapted so that it would emphasise the importance of imagination in narrative text comprehension. The results showed that the situational instruction enhanced the situation model construction abilities in good comprehenders in such a way that it improved not only their memory for the situation model but also the ease with which they filled in the gaps in time and space that appeared in the narratives. In poor comprehenders, the situational instruction led to a redistribution of attentional resources allocated to textbase‐ and situation‐level processing. It was suggested that this caused them to go beyond encoding the explicit text and instead construct a situation model from it, and that they did so without enriching the model with general‐knowledge inferences as much as good comprehenders. |
Andrew J. Kolarik; Tom H. Margrain; Tom C. A. Freeman Precision and accuracy of ocular following: Influence of age and type of eye movement Journal Article In: Experimental Brain Research, vol. 201, no. 2, pp. 271–282, 2010. @article{Kolarik2010,Previous work on ocular-following emphasises the accuracy of tracking eye movements. However, a more complete understanding of oculomotor control should account for variable error as well. We identify two forms of precision: 'shake', occurring over shorter timescales; 'drift', occurring over longer timescales. We show how these can be computed across a series of eye movements (e.g. a sequence of slow-phases or collection of pursuit trials) and then measure accuracy and precision for younger and older observers executing different types of eye movement. Overall, we found older observers were less accurate over a range of stimulus speeds and less precise at faster eye speeds. Accuracy declined more steeply for reflexive eye movements and shake was independent of speed. In all other instances, the two measures of precision expanded non-linearly with mean eye speed. We also found that shake during fixation was similar to shake for reflexive eye movement. The results suggest that deliberate and reflexive eye movement do not share a common non-linearity or a common noise source. The relationship of our data to previous studies is discussed, as are the consequences of imprecise eye movement for models of oculomotor control and perception during eye movement. |