EyeLink Eye Tracker Publications Library

@article{Zeng2025a,

title = {Age-related depreciation in predictive processing during Chinese reading: Insights from fixation-related potentials},

author = {Taishen Zeng and Longxia Lou and Zhifang Liu and Zhijun Zhang},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Current Psychology},

number = {2004},

pages = {1–11},

abstract = {To overcome methodological deficiencies in previous eye-tracking and event-related potentials (ERP) studies, the fixa- tion-related potential (FRP) approach was used to investigate how aging affects predictive processing in silent Chinese free-view reading. Forty older and 42 young adults participated in the experiment. All of them reported good reading abilities and none suffered from physical, mental, or cognitive diseases. The older participants were over 60 years of age (62.670 ± 3.018), and they did not differ from the younger group in the schooling years (11.43 vs. 12.10},

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}

@article{Zeng2025,

title = {Coregistration of eye movements and EEG reveals frequency effects of words and their constituent characters in natural silent Chinese reading},

author = {Taishen Zeng and Longxia Lou and Zhi-Fang Liu and Chaoyang Chen and Zhijun Zhang},

doi = {10.1038/s41598-024-82817-6},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Scientific Reports},

volume = {15},

number = {1},

pages = {1–14},

abstract = {We conducted two experiments to examine the lexical and sub-lexical processing of Chinese two-character words in reading. We used a co-registration electroencephalogram (EEG) for the first fixation on target words. In Experiment 1, whole-word occurrence frequency and initial constituent character frequency were orthogonally manipulated, while in Experiment 2, whole-word occurrence frequency and end constituent character frequency were orthogonally manipulated. Results showed that word frequency facilitated eye-tracking measures, while initial and end character frequencies inhibited them. Classical word frequency effects on N170 and N400 in the posterior region and reversed word frequency effects over the anterior region were consistently observed in both experiments. Experiment 1 revealed an inhibiting effect of initial character frequency on anterior N170. In Experiment 2, interaction between end-character frequency and word frequency showed reliable effects on anterior N170 and N400. These results demonstrate both facilitating and inhibiting word frequency effects, along with inhibiting effects of character frequency and that word frequency moderates the inhibiting effects of end constituent character frequency during natural silent Chinese reading.},

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@article{Yao2025,

title = {Explore the processing unit of L2 Chinese learners in on-line Chinese reading},

author = {Panpan Yao and Xin Jiang and Xinwei Chen and Xingshan Li},

doi = {10.1177/02676583231202606},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Second Language Research},

volume = {41},

number = {1},

pages = {3 –19},

abstract = {The present study explored the processing units of high-proficiency second language (L2) Chinese learners in on-line reading in an eye-tracking experiment. The critical aim was to investigate how learners segment continuous characters into words without the aid of word boundary demarcations. Based on previous studies, the embedded words of 2- and 3-character incremental words were manipulated to be either plausible or implausible with the preceding verbs, while the incremental words themselves were always plausible. The results revealed an effect of the plausibility manipulation, which suggested that L2 Chinese learners activated embedded words first and integrated embedded words with previous sentence context as soon as they read them.},

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@article{Yan2025a,

title = {The Beijing Sentence Corpus II: A cross-script comparison between traditional and simplified Chinese sentence reading},

author = {Ming Yan and Jinger Pan and Reinhold Kliegl},

doi = {10.3758/s13428-024-02523-z},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Behavior Research Methodsl},

volume = {57},

number = {2},

pages = {1–16},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {We introduce a sentence corpus with eye-movement data in traditional Chinese (TC), based on the original Beijing Sentence Corpus (BSC) in simplified Chinese (SC). The most noticeable difference between TC and SC character sets is their visual complexity. There are reaction time corpora in isolated TC character/word lexical decision and naming tasks. However, up to now natural TC sentence reading corpus with recorded eye movements has not been available for general public. We report effects of word frequency, visual complexity, and predictability on eye movements on fixation location and duration based on 60 native TC readers. In addition, because the current BSC-II sentences are nearly identical to the original BSC sentences, we report similarities and differences of the linguistic influences on eye movements for the two varieties of written Chinese. The results shed light on how visual complexity affects eye movements. Together, the two sentence corpora comprise a useful tool to establish cross-script similarities and differences in TC and SC.},

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}

@article{Xie2025,

title = {Exploring the role of word segmentation on parafoveal processing during Chinese reading},

author = {Fang Xie and Wanying Chen and Lei Zhang and Xiaohua Cao and Kayleigh L. Warrington},

doi = {10.1080/20445911.2024.2429176},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Cognitive Psychology},

volume = {37},

number = {1},

pages = {1–14},

abstract = {The importance of the word as a unit of meaning is well-established for readers of both alphabetic languages and Chinese. However, the unspaced nature of written Chinese raises questions about how readers use upcoming information to guide word segmentation and to adjust the parafoveal processing of subsequent characters. Using an eye-tracking experiment, we investigated whether Chinese readers pre-process character C2 more when it forms a word with C1 than when they belong to separate words. The boundary paradigm was used to manipulate the preview of C2, such that readers saw either an identity (normal) or pseudo-character preview. Linear mixed-effects models revealed reduced preview benefit when C1 and C2 were separate words. These results suggest that despite the absence of visual segmentation cues, Chinese readers are able to utilise the parafoveal preview to support the identification of word boundaries and modulate the extent of their parafoveal processing to prioritise the processing of word units.},

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@article{Tremblay2025,

title = {The role of morphology and sentence context in word processing for adults with low literacy},

author = {Kathryn A. Tremblay and Katja Mcbane and Katherine S. Binder},

doi = {10.1177/00222194251315198},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Learning Disabilities},

pages = {1–15},

abstract = {Both vocabulary skill and morphological complexity, or whether words can be broken down into root words and affixes, have a significant impact on word processing for adults with low literacy. We investigated the influence of word-level variables of morphological complexity and root word frequency, and the sentence-level variable of context strength on word processing in adults with low literacy, who differed on levels of vocabulary depth skills, which was a participant- level variable. Our findings demonstrate that morphological complexity, root word frequency, and context strength are all related to how adult learners process words while reading, but their effects are dependent on participants' vocabulary depth. Participants with higher levels of vocabulary depth were able to more quickly process morphologically complex words and make better use of supportive sentence context as compared to individuals with lower levels of vocabulary depth. These findings suggest that both morphological complexity and vocabulary depth are important for word processing and reading comprehension in adults with low literacy.},

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}

@article{Tekbudak2025,

title = {The PSR corpus: A Persian sentence reading corpus of eye movements},

author = {Zohre Soleymani Tekbudak and Mehdi Purmohammad and Ayşegül Özkan and Cengiz Acartürk},

doi = {10.3758/s13428-024-02517-x},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Behavior Research Methods},

volume = {57},

number = {1},

pages = {1–16},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {The present study introduces the Persian Sentence Reading (PSR) Corpus, aiming to expand empirical data for Persian, an under-investigated language in research on oculomotor control in reading. Reading research has largely focused on Latin script languages with a left-to-right reading direction. However, languages with different reading directions, such as right-to-left and top-to-bottom, and particularly Persian script-based languages like Farsi and Dari, have remained understudied. This study pioneers in providing an eye movement dataset for reading Persian sentences, enabling further exploration of the influences of unique Persian characteristics on eye movement patterns during sentence reading. The core objective of the study is to provide data about how word characteristics impact eye movement patterns. The research also investigates the characteristics of the interplay between neighboring words and eye movements on them. By broadening the scope of reading research beyond commonly studied languages, the study aims to contribute to an interdisciplinary approach to reading research, exemplifying investigations through various theoretical and methodological perspectives.},

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}

@article{Schuster2025,

title = {Interactive and additive effects of word frequency and predictability: A fixation-related fMRI study},

author = {Sarah Schuster and Kim Lara Weiss and Florian Hutzler and Martin Kronbichler and Stefan Hawelka},

doi = {10.1016/j.bandl.2024.105508},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Brain and Language},

volume = {260},

pages = {1–7},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {The effects of word frequency and predictability are informative with respect to bottom-up and top-down mechanisms during reading. Word frequency is assumed to index bottom-up, whereas word predictability top-down information. Findings regarding potential interactive effects, however, are inconclusive. An interactive effect would suggest an early lexical impact of contextual top-down mechanisms where both variables are processed concurrently in early stages of word recognition. An additive effect, to the contrary, would suggest that contextual top-down processing only occurs post-lexically. We evaluated potential interactions between word frequency and predictability during silent reading by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging and simultaneous eye-tracking (i.e., fixation-related fMRI). Our data revealed exclusively additive effects. Specifically, we observed effects of word frequency and word predictability in left inferior frontal regions, whereas word frequency additionally exhibited an effect in the left occipito-temporal cortex. We interpret our findings in terms of contextual top-down processing facilitation.},

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@article{Schmidtke2025,

title = {DerLex: An eye‑movement database of derived word reading in English},

author = {Daniel Schmidtke and Julie A. Van Dyke and Victor Kuperman},

doi = {10.3758/s13428-024-02565-3},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Behavior Research Methods},

volume = {57},

number = {1},

pages = {1–15},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {This paper introduces a new database of eye-tracking data on English derived words, DerLex. A total of 598 unique derived suffixed words were embedded in sentences and read by 357 participants representing both university convenience pools and community pools of non-college-bound adults. Besides the eye-movement record of reading derived suffixed words, the DerLex database provides the author recognition test (ART) scores for each participant, tapping into their reading proficiency, as well as multiple lexical variables reflecting distributional, orthographic, phonological, and semantic features of the words, their constituent morphemes, and morphological families. The paper additionally reports the main effects of select lexical variables and their interactions with the ART scores. It also produces estimates of statistical power and sample sizes required to reliably detect those lexical effects. While some effects are robust and can be readily detected even in a small-scale typi- cal experiment, the over-powered DerLex database does not offer sufficient power to detect many other effects—including those of theoretical importance for existing accounts of morphological processing. We believe that both the availability of the new data resource and the limitations it provides for the planning and design of upcoming experiments are useful for future research on morphological complexity.},

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@article{Salmela2025,

title = {Challenges in inflected word processing for L2 speakers The role of stem allomorphy},

author = {Rosa Salmela and Minna Lehtonen and Seppo Vainio and Raymond Bertram},

doi = {10.1017/S0272263125000026},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Studies in Second Language Acquisition},

pages = {1–28},

abstract = {Morphological knowledge refers to the ability to recognize and use morphemes correctly in syntactic contexts and word formation. This is crucial for learning a morphologically rich language like Finnish, which features both agglutinative and fusional morphology. In Finnish, agglutination occurs in forms like aamu: aamu+lla (‘morning: in the morning'), where a suffix is transparently added. Fusional features, as seen in ilta: illa+lla (‘evening: in the evening'), involve allomorphic stemchanges that reduce transparency. We investigated the challenges posed by stem allomorphy for word recognition in isolation and in context for L2 learners and L1 speakers ofFinnish. In a lexical decision task, L2 speakers had longer response times and higher error rates for semitransparent inflections, while L1 speakers showed longer response times for both transparent and semitransparent inflection types. In sentence reading, L2 speakers exhibited longer fixation times for semitransparent forms, whereas L1 speakers showed no significant effects. The results suggest that the challenges in L2 inflectional processing are more related to fusional than agglutinative features of the Finnish language.},

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pubstate = {published},

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}

@article{Parshina2025,

title = {The effect of the global language context on bilingual language control during L1 reading},

author = {Olga Parshina and Anna Smirnova and Sofya Goldina and Emily Bainbridge},

doi = {10.1017/S1366728924000658},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition},

pages = {1–11},

abstract = {The proactive gain control hypothesis suggests that the global language context regulates lexical access to the bilinguals' languages during reading. Specifically, with increasing exposure to non-target language cues, bilinguals adjust the lexical activation to allow non-target language access from the earliest word recognition stages. Using the invisible boundary paradigm, we examined the flow of lexical activation in 50 proficient Russian-English bilinguals reading in their native Russian while the language context shifted from a monolingual to a bilingual environment. We gradually introduced non-target language cues (the language of experimenter and fillers) while also manipulating the type of word previews (identical, code-switches, unrelated code-switches, pseudowords). The results revealed the facilitatory reading effects of code-switches but only in the later lexical processing stages and these effects were independent of the global language context manipulation. The results are discussed from the perspective of limitations imposed by script differences on bilingual language control flexibility.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Parker2025,

title = {Frequency and predictability effects for line final words},

author = {Adam J. Parker and Timothy J. Slattery},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance},

volume = {51},

number = {1},

pages = {92–112},

abstract = {Computational models of eye movement control during reading have revolutionized the study of visual, perceptual, and linguistic processes underlying reading. However, these models can only simulate and test predictions about the reading of single lines of text. Here we report two studies that examined how input var- iables for lexical processing (frequency and predictability) in these models influence the processing of line- final words. The first study was a linear mixed-effects analysis of the Provo Corpus, which included data from 84 readers reading 55 multiline texts. The second study was a preregistered eye movement experiment, where 32 participants read 128 items where frequency, predictability, and position (intraline vs. line-final) were orthogonally manipulated. Both studies were consistent in showing that reading timeswere shorter on line-final words.While therewasmixed evidence for frequency and predictability effects in the ProvoCorpus, our exper- imental data confirmed additive effects of frequency and predictability for line-final words, which did not differ from those for intralinewords.We conclude that while models that make additive assumptions about the role of frequency and predictability may be better suited to modeling the current findings, additional assumptions are required if models are to be capable of modeling shorter reading times on line-final words.},

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@article{Pagan2025,

title = {Aging and word predictability during reading: Evidence from eye movements and fixation-related potentials},

author = {Ascensión Pagán and Federica Degno and Sara V. Milledge and Richard D. Kirkden and Sarah J. White and Simon P. Liversedge and Kevin B. Paterson},

doi = {10.3758/s13414-024-02981-9},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics},

pages = {1–26},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {The use of context to facilitate the processing of words is recognized as a hallmark of skilled reading. This capability is also hypothesized to change with older age because of cognitive changes across the lifespan. However, research investigating this issue using eye movements or event-related potentials (ERPs) has produced conflicting findings. Specifically, whereas eye-movement studies report larger context effects for older than younger adults, ERP findings suggest that context effects are diminished or delayed for older readers. Crucially, these contrary findings may reflect methodological differences, including use of unnatural sentence displays in ERP research. To address these limitations, we used a coregistration technique to record eye movements (EMs) and fixation-related potentials (FRPs) simultaneously while 44 young adults (18–30 years) and 30 older adults (65+ years) read sentences containing a target word that was strongly or weakly predicted by prior context. Eye-movement analyses were conducted over all data (full EM dataset) and only data matching FRPs. FRPs were analysed to capture early and later components 70–900 ms following fixation-onset on target words. Both eye-movement datasets and early FRPs showed main effects of age group and context, while the full EM dataset and later FRPs revealed larger context effects for older adults. We argue that, by using coregistration methods to address limitations of earlier ERP research, our experiment provides compelling complementary evidence from eye movements and FRPs that older adults rely more on context to integrate words during reading.},

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}

@article{Minissi2025,

title = {Can playing video games enhance reading skills through more efficient serial visual search mechanisms? Insights from an eye tracking study},

author = {Maria Eleonora Minissi and Alexia Antzaka and Simona Mancini and Marie Lallier},

doi = {10.1080/23273798.2024.2411696},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Language, Cognition and Neuroscience},

volume = {40},

number = {2},

pages = {209–230},

publisher = {Taylor & Francis},

abstract = {Reading disorders are associated with atypical top-down visual attention (VA) processes like reduced VA span and slower serial visual search (SVS). In contrast, expert action video game (AVG) players, known for their efficient top-down VA, exhibit improved reading abilities. It is unclear whether these benefits stem solely from AVGs or apply to other gaming experiences. To explore this, AVG players (AVGPs), players of genres excluding AVGs (VGPs), and non-players were evaluated on their VA span, and behavioural and oculomotor performance in SVS. VGPs, but not AVGPs, demonstrated enhanced performance and oculomotor behaviour in SVS compared to non-players, while both player groups showed a trend towards better VA span skills. Notably, reading-related skills were enhanced in the two player groups, but particularly more so in VGPs. These findings support the existence of potential benefits of playing video games different from classical AVGs for the development of top-down VA and reading-related abilities.},

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tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Meng2025,

title = {Primary task demands modulate background speech disruption during reading of Chinese tongue twisters: An eye-tracking study},

author = {Zhu Meng and Guoli Yan and John E. Marsh and Simon P. Liversedge},

doi = {10.1080/20445911.2025.2457774},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Cognitive Psychology},

pages = {1–18},

abstract = {This study investigated how the semantic and phonological properties of background speech affect reading, depending on primary task processing. Chinese participants were randomly assigned to two groups and read Chinese tongue twisters while exposed to meaningful, meaningless, spectrally-rotated speech (acoustically similar to normal speech but without linguistic information), or silence. One group engaged in a semantic task, comprehending sentences and responding to “yes-no” questions, while the other performed a phonological task, identifying the most frequent initial phoneme in sentences and selecting a corresponding character. Although background speech did not significantly influence accuracy for either task, it differentially impacted eye movements and reading rates. Semantic properties disrupted the semantic task without significantly affecting the phonological task, while phonological properties influenced both tasks, particularly the phonological one. These findings indicate that the nature of the reading task modulates the disruptive effects of background speech, supporting the interference-by-process account.},

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tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Martinez2025,

title = {Discrimination of radiologists' experience level using eye-tracking technology and machine learning: Case study},

author = {Stanford Martinez and Carolina Ramirez-Tamayo and Syed Hasib Akhter Faruqui and Kal Clark and Adel Alaeddini and Nicholas Czarnek and Aarushi Aggarwal and Sahra Emamzadeh and Jeffrey R. Mock and Edward J. Golob},

doi = {10.2196/53928},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {JMIR Formative Research},

volume = {9},

pages = {1–16},

abstract = {Background: Perception-related errors comprise most diagnostic mistakes in radiology. To mitigate this problem, radiologists use personalized and high-dimensional visual search strategies, otherwise known as search patterns. Qualitative descriptions of these search patterns, which involve the physician verbalizing or annotating the order he or she analyzes the image, can be unreliable due to discrepancies in what is reported versus the actual visual patterns. This discrepancy can interfere with quality improvement interventions and negatively impact patient care. Objective: The objective of this study is to provide an alternative method for distinguishing between radiologists by means of captured eye-tracking data such that the raw gaze (or processed fixation data) can be used to discriminate users based on subconscious behavior in visual inspection. Methods: We present a novel discretized feature encoding based on spatiotemporal binning of fixation data for efficient geometric alignment and temporal ordering of eye movement when reading chest x-rays. The encoded features of the eye-fixation data are used by machine learning classifiers to discriminate between faculty and trainee radiologists. A clinical trial case study was conducted using metrics such as the area under the curve, accuracy, F1-score, sensitivity, and specificity to evaluate the discriminability between the 2 groups regarding their level of experience. The classification performance was then compared with state-of-the-art methodologies. In addition, a repeatability experiment using a separate dataset, experimental protocol, and eye tracker was performed with 8 participants to evaluate the robustness of the proposed approach. Results: The numerical results from both experiments demonstrate that classifiers using the proposed feature encoding methods outperform the current state-of-the-art in differentiating between radiologists in terms of experience level. An average performance gain of 6.9% is observed compared with traditional features while classifying experience levels of radiologists. This gain in accuracy is also substantial across different eye tracker–collected datasets, with improvements of 6.41% using the Tobii eye tracker and 7.29% using the EyeLink eye tracker. These results signify the potential impact of the proposed method for identifying radiologists' level of expertise and those who would benefit from additional training. Conclusions: The effectiveness of the proposed spatiotemporal discretization approach, validated across diverse datasets and various classification metrics, underscores its potential for objective evaluation, informing targeted interventions and training strategies in radiology. This research advances reliable assessment tools, addressing challenges in perception-related errors to enhance patient care outcomes.},

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}

@article{LouredaLamas2025,

title = {(Re)categorizing lexical encapsulation: An experimental approach},

author = {Óscar Loureda Lamas and Mathis Teucher and Celia Hernández Pérez and Adriana Cruz Rubio and Carlos Gelormini-Lezama},

doi = {10.1016/j.pragma.2025.01.017},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Pragmatics},

volume = {239},

pages = {4–15},

abstract = {Anaphoric encapsulation is a discursive mechanism by which a noun phrase recovers an explicature. This eye tracking study addresses the question of whether categorizing versus recategorizing encapsulation lead to different processing patterns. Results show that (1) encapsulating noun phrases are cognitively prominent areas, (2) recategorization is never less effortful than categorization, (3) the prominence and instructional asymmetry of the encapsulating noun phrase with respect to the antecedent is greater in cases of recategorizing encapsulation. Overall, encapsulating noun phrases initiate a complex cognitive operation due to the nature of their antecedent, which includes both encoded and inferred information. A distinctive processing pattern emerges for recategorizing encapsulating noun phrases: greater local efforts, due to the introduction of new information, do not result in higher total reading times. Beyond the introductory section, the structure of this study is as follows: Section 2 discusses the properties of categorizing and recategorizing mechanisms. Section 3 reviews experimental research on nominal anaphoric encapsulation in Spanish. Section 4 outlines the key aspects of the experimental design and execution. Finally, sections 5 and 6 present the results of the experiment and offer a theoretical discussion of the findings.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Liu2025b,

title = {Flexible word position encoding in Chinese reading: Evidence from parafoveal preprocessing},

author = {Zhiwei Liu and Yan Li and Jingxin Wang},

doi = {10.1080/13506285.2025.2456742},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Visual Cognition},

pages = {1–9},

abstract = {Accurately encoding word positions plays a critical role in fluent reading, allowing readers to facilitate efficient comprehension. However, whether word position information can be encoded parafoveally remains unknown, particularly in unspaced languages like Chinese. This study investigated whether Chinese readers can extract word order information from parafoveal vision using the boundary paradigm and eye-tracking. Participants read sentences containing identical, transposed, or unrelated preview words, which were replaced by the target words upon the eyes crossing an invisible boundary. Results showed that reading times on the target words were longer for transposed compared to identical previews but shorter than unrelated previews. These findings suggest that word positional information can be encoded parafoveally during Chinese reading, but not in a strictly precise manner. The implications of the findings for the Chinese reading model are discussed.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Lan2025,

title = {Do advertisements disrupt reading? evidence from eye movements},

author = {Haiting Lan and Sixin Liao and Jan Louis Kruger},

doi = {10.1002/acp.70016},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Applied Cognitive Psychology},

volume = {39},

pages = {1–19},

abstract = {Reading online texts is often accompanied by visual distractors such as advertisements. Although previous studies have found that visual distractors are attention-demanding, little is known about how they impact reading. Drawing on text-based and word-based eye-movement measures, the current study examines how three types of ads (static image, flashing text and video) influence readers' reading comprehension and reading process. Results show that increasingly animated ads were more distracting than static ones at the text level, as evidenced by more and longer fixations, and more regressions. Moreover, the word frequency effect was stronger when reading with ads with flashing text than without ads on gaze duration and total reading time, suggesting that linguistic-related animated ads interfere with word processing. Although visual distractors reduced their reading speed and word processing efficiency, readers managed to maintain sufficient comprehension by adopting a more mindful reading strategy, indicating how metacognition functions in complex reading situations.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Labusch2025,

title = {The CASE of brand names during sentence reading},

author = {Melanie Labusch and Manuel Perea},

doi = {10.1007/s00426-024-02070-4},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Psychological Research},

volume = {89},

number = {1},

pages = {1–10},

publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},

abstract = {Brand names typically maintain a distinctive letter case (e.g., IKEA, Google). This element is essential for theoretical (word recognition models) and practical (brand design) reasons. In abstractionist models, letter case is considered irrelevant, whereas instance-based models use surface information like letter case during lexical retrieval. Previous brand identification tasks reported faster responses to brands in their characteristic letter case (e.g., IKEA and Google faster than ikea and GOOGLE), favoring instance-based models. We examined whether this pattern can be generalized to normal sentence reading: Participants read sentences in which well-known brand names were presented intact (e.g., IKEA, Google) or with a modified letter case (e.g., Ikea, GOOGLE). Results showed a cost for brands written in uppercase, independently of their characteristic letter case, in early eye fixation measures (probability of first-fixation, first-fixation duration). However, for later measures (gaze duration and total times), fixation times were longer when the brand's letter case was modified, restricted to those brands typically written in lowercase (e.g., GOOGLE > Google, whereas Ikea ≲ IKEA). Thus, during sentence reading, both the actual letter case and the typical letter case of brand names interact dynamically, posing problems for abstractionist models of reading.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Kyriacou2025,

title = {The cognitive underpinnings of irony comprehension: Fluid intelligence but not working memory modulates processing},

author = {Marianna Kyriacou and Franziska Köder},

doi = {10.1017/S0142716424000444},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Applied Psycholinguistics},

volume = {45},

pages = {1219–1250},

abstract = {The comprehension of irony involves a sophisticated inferential process requiring language users to go beyond the literal meaning of an utterance. Because of its complex nature, we hypothesized that working memory (WM) and fluid intelligence, the two main components of executive attention, would be involved in the understanding of irony: the former by maintaining focus and relevant information active during processing, the latter by disengaging irrelevant information and offering better problem-solving skills. In this eye-tracking reading experiment, we investigated how adults (N = 57) process verbal irony, based on their executive attention skills. The results indicated a null (or indirect) effect for WM, while fluid intelligence directly modulated the comprehension and processing of irony during reading. As fluid intelligence is an important individual-difference variable, the findings pave the way for future research on developmental and clinical populations who tend to struggle with nonliteral language.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Jian2025,

title = {Prediction of text-and-diagram reading comprehension by eye-movement indicators: A longitudinal study in elementary schools},

author = {Yu Cin Jian and Leo Yuk Ting Cheung},

doi = {10.1007/s10212-024-00904-8},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {European Journal of Psychology of Education},

volume = {40},

number = {1},

pages = {1–25},

publisher = {Springer Netherlands},

abstract = {Eye-movement technology has been often used to examine reading processes, but research has seldom examined the relationship between the reading process and comprehension performance, and whether the relationships are similar or different across grades. To investigate this, we conducted a 3-year longitudinal study starting at grade 4, with 175 effect samples to track the development data of eye movements on text-and-diagram reading. A series of temporal and spatial eye-movement predictors were identified to predict reading comprehension in various grades. The result of a hierarchical regression model established that total fixation duration measures (reflects processing level) and mean fixation duration (reflects decoding efficiency) were relatively better predictors of the post-reading tests at grades 5 and 6. That is, the readers made more mental efforts and had better decoding ability, which predict better post-reading test scores. Meanwhile, in grades 5 and 6, rereading total fixation duration on both the main text and diagrams consistently predicted the post-reading tests, indicating that the readers' self-regulated study time on re-processing some specific information is important for reading comprehension. Besides, a longitudinal structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that the readers' fixation durations and text-and-diagram regression count in the lower fourth grade could significantly predict the same indicators in the following 2 years. In summary, this study identified the critical eye-movement indicators for predicting reading-test performance, and these predictions were more effective for the readers in upper grades than for those in the lower grades.},

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pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Huang2025a,

title = {The cognitive processing of nouns and verbs in second language reading: An eye-tracking study},

author = {Lingshan Huang},

doi = {10.1515/lingvan-2024-0105},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Linguistics Vanguard},

number = {288},

pages = {1–11},

abstract = {This study explores the cognitive processing of nouns and verbs in second language (L2) reading, aiming to investigate the potential differences and their effects on comprehension performance. Twenty-five Chinese students read an English text while their eye movements were recorded. A reading comprehension test evaluated the participants' L2 reading comprehension performance. The results reveal a significant difference in total reading time between nouns and verbs. Additionally, total reading time, gaze duration, and the number of fixations on both nouns and verbs are negatively correlated with L2 reading comprehension performance. These findings suggest that while the initial processing mechanisms of nouns and verbs may be similar, they diverge in late stages of processing.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Huang2025,

title = {Investigating the effect of emoji position on eye movements and subjective evaluations on Chinese sarcasm comprehension},

author = {Jinghua Huang and Mingyan Wang and Ting Zhang and Dongliang Zhang and Yi Zhou and Lujin Mao and Mengyao Qi},

doi = {10.1080/00140139.2024.2325534},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Ergonomics},

volume = {68},

number = {2},

pages = {251–266},

publisher = {Taylor & Francis},

abstract = {Evidence indicated that emojis could influence sarcasm comprehension and sentence processing in English. However, the effect of emojis on Chinese sarcasm comprehension remains unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the impact of the smiley emoji position and semantics on eye movements and subjective assessments during Chinese online communication. Our results showed that the presence of a smiley emoji improved participants' interpretation and perception of sarcasm. We also found shorter dwell times on sarcastic words compared to literal words under the comment-final emoji condition. Additionally, we clarified the time course of emojified sentence processing during Chinese reading: the presence of emoji initially decreased first fixation durations compared to the absence of emoji and then the comment-final emoji shortened dwell times on sarcastic words compared to literal words in the critical area of interest. Our findings suggested that the comment-final emoji was the preferable choice for avoiding semantic comprehension bias in China.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ghorbani2025,

title = {Reading words versus seeing font or handwriting style: A study of hemifield processing},

author = {Helena Ghorbani and Gülcenur Özturan and Andrea Albonico and Jason J. S. Barton},

doi = {10.1007/s00221-024-06986-6},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Experimental Brain Research},

volume = {243},

number = {2},

pages = {1–9},

abstract = {Tachistoscopic studies have established a right field advantage for the perception of visually presented words, which has been interpreted as reflecting a left hemispheric specialization. However, it is not clear whether this is driven by the linguistic task of word processing, or also occurs when processing properties such as the style and regularity of text. We had 23 subjects perform a tachistoscopic study while they viewed five-letter words in either computer font or handwriting. The task in one block was to respond if the word in the peripheral field matched a word just seen in the central field. In a second block with the same stimuli, the task was to respond if the style (handwriting or font) matched. We found a main effect of task: there was a right-field advantage for reading the word, but no field advantage for reporting the style of text. There was no effect of stimulus type and no interaction between task and stimulus type. We conclude that the field advantage for processing text is driven by the task, being specific for the processing the identity of the word and not the perception of the style of the text. We did not find evidence to support prior assertions that the type of text and its regularity influenced the field advantage during the word-reading task.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Fuchs2025,

title = {Processing of verbal versus adjectival agreement: Implications for syntax and psycholinguistics},

author = {Zuzanna Fuchs and Olga Parshina and Irina A. Sekerina and Maria Polinsky},

doi = {10.13039/100020891},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Glossa: a journal of general linguistics},

volume = {10},

number = {1},

pages = {1–35},

abstract = {Linguistic theories distinguish between external and internal agreement (e.g., noun-verb agreement vs.noun-modifier agreement, the latter also known as concord) and model them using different mechanisms.While this distinction has garnered considerable attention in syntactic theory, it remains largely unexplored in experimental work.In an effort to address this gap, we conducted two studies of external/internal agreement in Russian using self-paced reading and eye-tracking while reading.We measured the response to violations generated when native speakers encounter a noun that mismatches the features on an earlier element inflected for agreement (verb, modifying adjective, and predicative adjective).Both experimental studies found strong effects of ungrammaticality: participants were sensitive to agreement mismatches between the agreeing element and the trigger.However, there was no interaction observed between the effect of grammaticality and the type of agreeing element, suggesting that, while participants are sensitive to mismatches, the processing of the mismatches does not differ between external and internal agreement.Despite the cross-methodological replication of the null interaction effect, interpreting this result is necessarily tentative.We discuss possible implications, should the result be further replicated by future high-powered studies.We suggest that this outcome may indicate that differences in real-time processing of internal vs.external agreement may not be observable in time-course measures, or that the lack of such differences constitutes support for analyses of agreement as a two-step process, with one step in syntax, and the other, post-syntactic.We invite future work to test these hypotheses further.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Fernandez2025,

title = {Younger adults may be faster at making semantic predictions, but older adults are more efficient},

author = {Leigh B. Fernandez and Muzna Shehzad and Lauren V. Hadley},

doi = {10.1037/pag0000872},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Psychology and Aging},

pages = {1–8},

abstract = {While there is strong evidence that younger adults use contextual information to generate semantic predictions, findings from older adults are less clear. Age affects cognition in a variety of different ways that may impact prediction mechanisms; while the efficiency of memory systems and processing speed decrease, life experience leads to complementary increases in vocabulary size, real-world knowledge, and even inhibitory control. Using the visual world paradigm, we tested prediction in younger (n = 30, between 18 and 35 years of age) and older adults (n = 30, between 53 and 78 years of age). Importantly, we differentiated early stage predictions based on simple spreading activation from the more resource-intensive tailoring of predictions when additional constraining information is provided. We found that older adults were slower than younger adults in generating early stage predictions but then quicker than younger adults to tailor those predictions given additional information. This suggests that while age may lead to delays in first activating relevant lexical items when listening to speech, increased linguistic experience nonetheless increases the efficiency with which contextual information is used. These findings are consistent with reports of age having positive as well as negative impacts on cognition and suggest conflation of different stages of prediction as a basis for the inconsistency in the aging-related literature to date.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Dempsey2025,

title = {Eye-movement indices of reading while debugging Python source code},

author = {Jack Dempsey and Anna Tsiola and Nigel Bosch and Kiel Christianson and Mallory Stites},

doi = {10.1080/20445911.2024.2447117},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Cognitive Psychology},

volume = {37},

number = {2},

pages = {89–107},

abstract = {Unlike text reading, the eye-movement behaviours associated with reading Python, a computer programming language, are largely understudied through a psycholinguistic lens. A general understanding of the eye movements involved in reading while troubleshooting Python, and how these behaviours compare to proofreading text, is critical for developing educational interventions and interactive tools for helping programmers debug their code. These data may also highlight to what extent humans use their underlying text reading ability when reading source code. The current work provides a profile of global reading behaviours associated with reading Python source code for debugging purposes. To this end, we recorded experienced programmers' eye movements while they determined whether 21 different Python functions would produce the desired output, an incorrect output, or an error message. Some reading behaviours seem to mirror those found in text reading (e.g. effects of stimulus complexity), while others may be specific to reading code. Results suggest that semantic errors that produce undesired outputs in programming source code may influence early stages of processing, likely due to the largely top-down strategy employed by experienced programmers when reading source code. The findings are framed to invigorate discussion and further exploration into psycholinguistic analysis of human source code reading.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Christofalos2025,

title = {The impact of interword spacing on inference processing during text reading: Evidence from eye movements},

author = {Andriana L. Christofalos and Nicole M. Arco and Madison Laks and Heather Sheridan},

doi = {10.1080/0163853X.2024.2413811},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Discourse Processes},

volume = {62},

number = {1},

pages = {1–15},

publisher = {Routledge},

abstract = {Removing interword spacing has been shown to disrupt lower-level oculomotor processes and word identification during text reading. However, the impact of these disruptions on higher-level processes remains unclear. To examine the influence of spacing on inferential processing, we monitored eye movements while participants read spaced and unspaced passages that were strongly or weakly constrained toward an inference. Removing spaces disrupted reading fluency, as evidenced by longer reading times, longer fixation durations, reduced skipping, and shorter saccades. We also observed the effects of inferential constraint for spaced passages as characterized by longer reading times, more regressions, and longer regression-path durations for weakly than strongly constrained passages. However, these constraint effects were absent for unspaced passages, suggesting that removing spaces disrupts inferential processing. Our results are consistent with models of reading and discourse processing that assume that higher-level reading processes depend on the quality of lexical representations developed at earlier, word-level reading stages.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Aljassmi2025,

title = {Parafoveal preview benefit effects in vertical alphabetic reading},

author = {Maryam A. Aljassmi and Kayleigh L. Warrington and Victoria A. Mcgowan and Fang Xie and Kevin B. Paterson},

doi = {10.1080/23273798.2025.2462184},

year  = {2025},

date = {2025-01-01},

journal = {Language, Cognition and Neuroscience},

pages = {1–10},

abstract = {The present study examines the extent to which the cognitive processes underlying reading can adapt to accommodate changes in text orientation. For readers of English, processing times are slowed substantially when reading text in the non-conventional vertical direction, but little is known about the processes underlying this slowdown. Accordingly, participants read English text presented in the conventional horizontal orientation, or rotated 90° clockwise to create a vertical orientation. Lexical processing was explored with word frequency effects and parafoveal processing was measured through parafoveal preview benefit. Reading times were longer, and word frequency effects were larger for vertical, compared with horizotonally presented text, in line with findings for reading in unfamiliar formats. Crucially, while clear preview benefit effects were observed for horizontal reading, these effects were entirely absent during vertical reading. These results provide novel insight into perceptual flexibility in foveal and parafoveal processing during reading.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zhu2024e,

title = {Reading left-to-right and right-to-left orthographies: Ocular prevalence, similarities, differences and the reasons for orthographic conventions},

author = {Ruomeng Zhu and Mateo Obregón and Hamutal Kreiner and Richard Shillcock},

doi = {10.1080/10888438.2024.2339873},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Scientific Studies of Reading},

volume = {28},

number = {5},

pages = {463–484},

publisher = {Routledge},

abstract = {Purpose: We compare right-to-left and left-to-right orthographies to test the theory, derived from studying the latter, that small temporal asynchronies between the two eyes at the beginning and end of every fixation favor ocular prevalence for the left eye in the left hemifield and the right eye in the right hemifield. Ocular prevalence is the prioritizing of one eye's input in the conscious, fused binocular percept. Method: We analyze binocular eye-tracking data from the reading of multiline Arabic and Hebrew text by 28 Arabic (M = 28.7},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zheng2024b,

title = {Effect of cognitive style on text topic structure processing: An eye-tracking study},

author = {Weixi Zheng and Jie Zhang and Anbang Chendu and Yan Wang and Xiaoyi Wang and Hongwei Sun and Liping Jia and Dexiang Zhang},

doi = {10.1007/s12144-024-06373-y},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Current Psychology},

pages = {27216–27224},

abstract = {This study employed an eye-tracking methodology to explore the impact of cognitive style on the processing of text topic structure among colleges, achieved by manipulating cognitive style and sentence type. Readers' cognitive styles were divided into field-dependent and field-independent categories using the Embedded Figure Test. The dependent variables include first-pass and second-pass fixation duration, corresponding fixation counts, and verification scores after reading each text. The results of the study indicate that participants devoted longer fixation duration and made more fixation counts on headings during the first-pass reading, devoted longer fixation duration, and made more fixation counts on topic sentences during the second-pass readings. The results also show that field-dependent readers exhibited longer fixation duration and more fixation count during the first-pass reading, but they obtained lower verification scores than field-independent readers. These findings imply that their reading outcomes differ, while field-dependent and field-independent readers allocate considerable attention to text topic structure.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zhao2024a,

title = {Readers may not integrate words strictly in the order in which they appear in Chinese reading},

author = {Hui Zhao and Linjieqiong Huang and Xingshan Li},

doi = {10.3758/s13423-024-02614-0},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Psychonomic Bulletin & Review},

pages = {1–12},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {The current study investigated whether word integration follows a strictly sequential order during natural Chinese reading. Chinese readers' eye movements were recorded when they read sentences containing a three-character string (ABC), where BC was always a two-character word and AB was also a two-character word in the overlapping condition but not a word in the non-overlapping condition. We manipulated the extent to which word BC was plausible as an immediate continuation following prior context (cross-word plausibility); the string AB was always implausible given the prior context, and the sentence continued in a manner that was compatible with A-BC. The results showed that there were longer second-pass reading times on the string ABC region in the cross-word plausible condition than those in the cross-word implausible condition in both the overlapping condition and the non-overlapping condition. These results imply that readers do not always integrate words strictly in the order in which they appear in Chinese reading.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zhang2024q,

title = {Integrating large language model, eeg, and eye-tracking for word-level neural state classification in reading comprehension},

author = {Yuhong Zhang and Qin Li and Sujal Nahata and Tasnia Jamal and Shih Cheng and Gert Cauwenberghs and Tzyy Ping Jung},

doi = {10.1109/TNSRE.2024.3435460},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering},

volume = {32},

pages = {3465–3475},

publisher = {IEEE},

abstract = {With the recent proliferation of large language models (LLMs), such as Generative Pre-trained Transformers (GPT), there has been a significant shift in exploring human and machine comprehension of semantic language meaning. This shift calls for interdisciplinary research that bridges cognitive science and natural language processing (NLP). This pilot study aims to provide insights into individuals’ neural states during a semantic inference reading-comprehension task. We propose jointly analyzing LLMs, eye-gaze, and electroencephalographic (EEG) data to study how the brain processes words with varying degrees of relevance to a keyword during reading. We also use feature engineering to improve the fixation-related EEG data classification while participants read words with high versus low relevance to the keyword. The best validation accuracy in this word-level classification is over 60% across 12 subjects. Words highly relevant to the inference keyword received significantly more eye fixations per word: 1.0584 compared to 0.6576, including words with no fixations. This study represents the first attempt to classify brain states at a word level using LLM-generated labels. It provides valuable insights into human cognitive abilities and Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), and offers guidance for developing potential reading-assisted technologies.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zhang2024g,

title = {The effect of congruent emotional context in emotional word processing during discourse comprehension},

author = {Qian Zhang and Jinfeng Ding and Zhenyu Zhang and Xiaohong Yang and Yufang Yang},

doi = {10.1016/j.jneuroling.2021.100989},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Neurolinguistics},

pages = {1–18},

abstract = {This study examined the effect of emotional context on the semantic memory of subsequent emotional words during discourse comprehension in two eye-tracking experiments. Four-sentence discourses were used as experimental materials. The first three sentences established an emotional or neutral context, while the fourth contained an emotional target word consistent with the preceding emotional context's valence. The discourses were presented twice using the text change paradigm, where the target words were replaced with strongly - or weakly-related words during the second presentation. Thus, four conditions were included in the present study: Emotional-strongly-related, Emotional-weakly-related, Neutral- strongly-related and Neutral-weakly-related. In Experiment 1, negative contexts and negative target words were used, whereas in Experiment 2, positive contexts and positive target words were used. The results revealed a semantic relatedness effect, whereby the strongly-related words have lower change detection accuracy, longer reading times and more fixations in both Experiments 1 and 2. Furthermore, across both experiments, the magnitude of the semantic relatedness effect was greater in the emotionally congruent contexts than in the neutral contexts. These results suggest that emotional context could increase efforts to change the discrimination of subsequent words and demonstrate an important role of emotional context on semantic memory during discourse processing.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zhang2024d,

title = {Parafoveal processing of orthography, phonology, and semantics during Chinese reading: Effects of foveal load},

author = {Lei Zhang and Liangyue Kang and Wanying Chen and Fang Xie and Kayleigh L. Warrington},

doi = {10.3390/brainsci14050512},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Brain Sciences},

volume = {14},

number = {5},

pages = {1–19},

abstract = {The foveal load hypothesis assumes that the ease (or difficulty) of processing the currently fixated word in a sentence can influence processing of the upcoming word(s), such that parafoveal preview is reduced when foveal load is high. Recent investigations using pseudo-character previews reported an absence of foveal load effects in Chinese reading. Substantial Chinese studies to date provide some evidence to show that parafoveal words may be processed orthographically, phonologically, or semantically. However, it has not yet been established whether parafoveal processing is equivalent in terms of the type of parafoveal information extracted (orthographic, phonological, semantic) under different foveal load conditions. Accordingly, the present study investigated this issue with two experiments. Participants' eye movements were recorded as they read sentences in which foveal load was manipulated by placing a low- or high-frequency word N preceding a critical word. The preview validity of the upcoming word N + 1 was manipulated in Experiment 1, and word N + 2 in Experiment 2. The parafoveal preview was either identical to word N + 1(or word N + 2); orthographically related; phonologically related; semantically related; or an unrelated pseudo-character. The results showed robust main effects of frequency and preview type on both N + 1 and N + 2. Crucially, however, interactions between foveal load and preview type were absent, indicating that foveal load does not modulate the types of parafoveal information processed during Chinese reading.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zang2024a,

title = {Does meaningful background speech modulate predictability effects during Chinese reading?},

author = {Chuanli Zang and Shuangshuang Wang and Yu Guan and Zhu Meng and Manman Zhang and Simon P. Liversedge},

doi = {10.1080/20445911.2024.2352902},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Cognitive Psychology},

pages = {1–14},

abstract = {Previous research indicates that background speech disrupts reading comprehension processes, but it remains unclear whether the disruption derives from semantic or phonological speech properties, and whether it affects early lexical processing or later sentence integration. Native Chinese speaking participants read sentences containing high- or low-predictability words under meaningful Chinese speech, meaningless Uyghur speech or silence conditions. Results showed that Chinese but not Uyghur speech produced increased total fixations compared to reading in silence, suggesting disruption was semantic in nature. While a standard predictability effect was comparable across background speech conditions in target word analyses, this effect disappeared in the Chinese speech condition in later measures and regions. The findings suggest that Chinese background speech may delay higher order (post-lexical) processing associated with sentence integration during reading, with implications for the Interference-by-Process hypothesis.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zang2024,

title = {Parafoveal processing of Chinese four-character idioms and phrases in reading: Evidence for multi-constituent unit hypothesis},

author = {Chuanli Zang and Shuangshuang Wang and Xuejun Bai and Guoli Yan and Simon P. Liversedge},

doi = {10.1016/j.jml.2024.104508},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Memory and Language},

volume = {136},

pages = {1–26},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {The perceptual span in Chinese reading extends one character to the left and three to the right of the point of fixation. Thus, four-character idioms and phrases often extend rightward beyond these limits during reading. We investigated whether such idioms, frequent phrases and equibiased strings are processed parafoveally as Multi-Constituent Units (MCUs). Using the boundary paradigm in Experiments 1 and 2, we separately manipulated preview (identities or pseudocharacters) of the first two and the last two characters of idioms and frequently used phrases. In Experiment 3, we examined processing of strings judged to be a single lexical unit, equi-biased ambiguous strings and matched unambiguous multi-word strings. Experiments 1 and 2 produced greater preview benefit for the final two characters when the first two characters were presented after identity rather than pseudocharacter previews. In Experiment 3, preview effects were largest for single units, reduced for equi-biased strings and smallest for multi-word strings. Together the results demonstrate that four-character idioms and frequently used phrases are processed as MCUs.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Zang2024b,

title = {Processing multiconstituent units: Preview effects during reading of Chinese words, idioms, and phrases},

author = {Chuanli Zang and Ying Fu and Hong Du and Xuejun Bai and Guoli Yan and Simon P. Liversedge},

doi = {10.1037/xlm0001234},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},

volume = {50},

number = {1},

pages = {169–188},

abstract = {Arguably, the most contentious debate in the field of eye movement control in reading has centered on whether words are lexically processed serially or in parallel during reading. Chinese is character-based and unspaced, meaning the issue of how lexical processing is operationalized across potentially ambiguous, multicharacter strings is not straightforward. We investigated Chinese readers' processing of frequently occurring multiconstituent units (MCUs), that is, linguistic units composed of more than a single word, that might be represented lexically as a single representation. In Experiment 1, we manipulated the linguistic category of a two-constituent Chinese string (word, MCU, or phrase) and the preview of its second constituent (identical or pseudocharacter) using the boundary paradigm with the boundary located before the twoconstituent string. A robust preview effect was obtained when the second constituent, alongside the first, formed a word or MCU, but not a phrase, suggesting that frequently occurring MCUs are lexicalized and processed parafoveally as single units during reading. In Experiment 2, we further manipulated the phrase type of a two-constituent but three-character Chinese string (idiom with a one-character modifier and a twocharacter noun, or matched phrase) and the preview of the second constituent noun (identity or pseudocharacter). A greater preview effect was obtained for idioms than phrases, indicating that idioms are processed to a greater extent in the parafovea than matched phrases. Together, the results of these two experiments suggest that lexical identification processes in Chinese can be operationalized over linguistic units that are larger than an individual word.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Yao2024,

title = {Emotion processing in concrete and abstract words: Evidence from eye fixations during reading},

author = {Bo Yao and Graham G. Scott and Gillian Bruce and Ewa Monteith-Hodge and Sara C. Sereno},

doi = {10.1080/02699931.2024.2367062},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Cognition and Emotion},

pages = {1–10},

abstract = {We replicated and extended the findings of Yao et al. [(2018). Differential emotional processing in concrete and abstract words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 44(7), 1064–1074] regarding the interaction of emotionality, concreteness, and imageability in word processing by measuring eye fixation times on target words during normal reading. A 3 (Emotion: negative, neutral, positive) × 2 (Concreteness: abstract, concrete) design was used with 22 items per condition, with each set of six target words matched across conditions in terms of word length and frequency. Abstract (e.g. shocking, reserved, fabulous) and concrete (e.g. massacre, calendar, treasure) target words appeared (separately) within contextually neutral, plausible sentences. Sixty-three participants each read all 132 experimental sentences while their eye movements were recorded. Analyses using Gamma generalised linear mixed models revealed significant effects of both Emotion and Concreteness on all fixation measures, indicating faster processing for emotional and concrete words. Additionally, there was a significant Emotion × Concreteness interaction which, critically, was modulated by Imageability in early fixation time measures. Emotion effects were significantly larger in higher-imageability abstract words than in lower-imageability ones, but remained unaffected by imageability in concrete words. These findings support the multimodal induction hypothesis and highlight the intricate interplay of these factors in the immediate stages of word processing during fluent reading.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Yan2024a,

title = {Phonological recovery during Chinese sentence reading: Effects of rime and tone},

author = {Ming Yan and Yiu-Kei Tsang and Jinger Pan},

doi = {10.1080/23273798.2024.2328577},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Language, Cognition and Neuroscience},

volume = {39},

number = {4},

pages = {501–512},

abstract = {The present study tested the activation of different phonological units of Chinese characters during silent sentence reading. Fifty-five participants were tested in an eye-tracking experiment. A highly predictable target character in each experimental sentence was replaced by four types of substitutes (i.e. no-violation, tone-violation, rime-violation, and double-violation). The participants exhibited a shorter total reading time in the no-violation and tone-violation conditions than in the double-violation baseline condition, whereas the rime-violation condition did not differ from the baseline. Moreover, the participants did not benefit from tonal information in addition to syllable-level phonological overlap. Our findings are consistent with a notion of late phonological activation in Chinese, and therefore suggest a direct route of lexical activation bypassing phonological mediation during visual word recognition.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Yan2024,

title = {Direction-specific reading experience shapes perceptual span},

author = {Ming Yan and Reinhold Kliegl and Jinger Pan},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},

volume = {50},

number = {11},

pages = {1740–1748},

abstract = {Perceptual span in reading, the spatial extent for effective information extraction during a single fixation, provides a critical foundation to all studies for sentence reading. However, it is not understood fully how the perceptual span is influenced by direction-specific reading experience. Traditional Chinese sentences can be written horizontally from left to right or vertically downward, offering the best opportunity to explore readers' perceptual span in different text directions, free of possible confounding with language proficiency and cross-participant differences. Using a within-item and within-subject design, eye movements of tradi- tional Chinese readers were recorded during their reading of horizontally and vertically presented sentences. Additionally, regardless of text direction, a gaze-contingent moving-window technique was adopted to restrict visible texts within a virtual window that moved in synchrony with the reader's eye gaze, while char- acters outside the window were masked. Among several critical results, most importantly, asymptotic read- ing performance was observed in a smaller window condition for vertical reading than for horizontal reading, suggesting an overall smaller perceptual span in the former case. In addition, the size of the vertical perceptual span increased as a function of the readers' familiarity with vertical text. We conclude that factors beyond orthographic complexity and readers' language proficiency can influence the way in which humans read. Readers' direction-specific perceptual experiences can influence their perceptual span.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Xu2024a,

title = {Development of comprehension monitoring skill in Chinese children: Evidence from eye movement and probe interviews},

author = {Kunyu Xu and Yu-Min Ku and Chenlu Ma and Chien-Hui Lin and Wan-Chen Chang},

doi = {10.1007/s11409-023-09354-x},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Metacognition and Learning},

volume = {19},

number = {1},

pages = {103–121},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {As an important construct in the cognitive process, comprehension monitoring has received much scholarly attention. Researchers have recognized comprehension monitoring as an ability closely linked with children's reading comprehension ability and working memory capacity. Evidence is also abundant to prove that comprehension monitoring skill develops with age. It remains unclear, however, how these factors interact during reading, particularly in low-grade children. Many previous empirical studies have only employed online or offline measurements to examine children's monitoring performance, which might lead to unsolid conclusions. In this study, we utilized both online eye-tracking measures and offline probe interviews to quantify the developmental features (i.e., evaluation and regulation) of comprehension monitoring skills among Chinese beginning readers. The results indicated that the comprehension monitoring performance, as quantified by eye-tracking measures, was positively related to their reading comprehension ability and working memory capacity. Moreover, the first-graders' performances lacked online regulation skills during the error-detecting tasks, while second-graders had relatively developed online monitoring performance. Additionally, the eye-tracking measures were found as a predictor for children's performances in probe interviews, as the readers with high comprehension ability and working memory capacity successfully reported more errors embedded in the self-designed reading materials. Therefore, the findings support the claim that children's comprehension monitoring is a developing skill associated with reading comprehension and working memory capacity and further question the existence of comprehension monitoring skills in beginning readers, especially first-graders.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Xia2024a,

title = {Saccadic targeting in the Landolt-C task: Implications for Chinese reading},

author = {Xinyi Xia and Qin Liu and Erik D. Reichle and Yanping Liu},

doi = {10.1037/xlm0001343},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},

volume = {50},

number = {11},

pages = {1749–1771},

abstract = {Participants in an eye-movement experiment performed a modified version of the Landolt-C paradigm (Williams & Pollatsek, 2007) to determine if there are preferred viewing locations when they searched for target squares embedded in linear arrays of spatially contiguous clusters of squares (i.e., sequences of one to four squares having missing segments of variable size and orientation). The results of this experiment indicate that, although the peaks of the single- and first-of-multiple-fixation landing-site distributions were respectively located near the centers and beginnings of the clusters, thereby replicating previous patterns that have been interpreted as evidence for the default saccadic-targeting hypothesis, the same dissociation was evident on nonclusters (i.e., arbitrarily defined regions of analysis). Furthermore, properties of the clusters (e.g., character number and gap size) influenced fixation durations and forward saccade length, suggesting that ongoing stimulus processing affects decisions about when and where (i.e., how far) to move the eyes. Finally, results of simulations using simple oculomotor-based, default-targeting, and dynamic-adjustment models indicated that the latter performed better than the other two, suggesting that the dynamic-adjustment strategy likely reflects the basic perceptual and motor constraints shared by a variety of visual tasks, rather than being specific to Chinese reading. The theoretical implications of these results for existing and future accounts of eye-movement control are discussed.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Wu2024,

title = {An eye-tracking study of college students' infographic-reading processes},

author = {Chao Jung Wu and Chia Yu Liu},

doi = {10.1177/10776990241255974},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly},

pages = {1–31},

abstract = {We know little about how readers, especially readers with various characteristics, incorporate materials with highly synthesized words and graphs like infographics. We collected eye movements from 95 college students as they read infographics and categorized them into high-/low-score groups based on comprehension scores. Participants initially inspected the word areas that corresponded to the graph areas with the highest perceptual salience. The high-score group showed greater total fixation duration (TFD), TFD ratios of graphs, and transition numbers between words and graphs, indicating more processing of infographics. The low-score group showed greater TFD ratios of words and saccade amplitudes, indicating information-searching behavior.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Wong2024b,

title = {Are there independent effects of constraint and predictability on eye movements during reading?},

author = {Roslyn Wong and Aaron Veldre and Sally Andrews},

doi = {10.1037/xlm0001206},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},

volume = {50},

number = {2},

pages = {331–345},

abstract = {Evidence of processing costs for unexpected words presented in place of a more expected completion remains elusive in the eye-movement literature. The current study investigated whether such prediction error costs depend on the source of constraint violation provided by the prior context. Participants' eye movements were recorded as they read predictable words and unpredictable alternatives that were either semantically related or unrelated in three-sentence passages. The passages differed in whether the source of constraint originated solely from the global context provided by the first two semantically rich senten- ces of the passage, from the local context provided by the final sentence of the passage, from both the global and local context, or from none of the three sentences of the passage. The results revealed the expected processing advantage for predictable completions in any constraining context, although the rela- tive contributions of the different sources of constraint varied across the time course of word processing. Unpredictable completions, however, did not yield any processing costs when the context constrained to- ward a different word, instead producing immediate processing benefits in the presence of any constrain- ing context. Moreover, the initial processing of related unpredictable completions was enhanced further by the provision of a supportive global context. Predictability effects therefore do not appear to be deter- mined by cloze probability alone but also by the nature of the prior contextual constraint especially when they encourage the construction of higher-level discourse representations. The implications of these find- ings for understanding existing theoretical models of predictive processing are discussed.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Wong2024a,

title = {Looking for immediate and downstream evidence of lexical prediction in eye movements during reading},

author = {Roslyn Wong and Aaron Veldre and Sally Andrews},

doi = {10.1177/17470218231223858},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology},

volume = {77},

number = {10},

pages = {2040 –2064},

abstract = {Previous investigations of whether readers make predictions about the full identity of upcoming words have focused on the extent to which there are processing consequences when readers encounter linguistic input that is incompatible with their expectations. To date, eye-movement studies have revealed inconsistent evidence of the processing costs that would be expected to accompany lexical prediction. This study investigated whether readers' lexical predictions were observable during or downstream from their initial point of activation. Three experiments assessed readers' eye movements to predictable and unpredictable words, and then to subsequent downstream words, which probed the lingering activation of previously expected words. The results showed novel evidence of processing costs for unexpected input but only when supported by a plausible linguistic environment, suggesting that readers could strategically modulate their predictive processing. However, there was limited evidence that their lexical predictions affected downstream processing. The implications of these findings for understanding the role of prediction in language processing are discussed.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Wei2024b,

title = {Functional priority of syntax over semantics in Chinese 'ba' construction: Evidence from eye-tracking during natural reading},

author = {Yanjun Wei and Yingjuan Tang and Adam John Privitera},

doi = {10.1017/langcog.2023.42},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Language and Cognition},

volume = {16},

number = {2},

pages = {380–400},

abstract = {Studies on sentence processing in inflectional languages support that syntactic structure building functionally precedes semantic processing. Conversely, most EEG studies of Chinese sentence processing do not support the priority of syntax. One possible explanation is that the Chinese language lacks morphological inflections. Another explanation may be that the presentation of separate sentence components on individual screens in EEG studies disrupts syntactic framework construction during sentence reading. The present study investigated this explanation using a self-paced reading experiment mimicking rapid serial visual presentation in EEG studies and an eye-tracking experiment reflecting natural reading. In both experiments, Chinese 'ba' sentences were presented to Chinese young adults in four conditions that differed across the dimensions of syntactic and semantic congruency. Evidence supporting the functional priority of syntax over semantics was limited to only the natural reading context, in which syntactic violations blocked the processing of semantics. Additionally, we observed a later stage of integrating plausible semantics with a failed syntax. Together, our findings extend the functional priority of syntax to the Chinese language and highlight the importance of adopting more ecologically valid methods when investigating sentence reading.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Ward2024,

title = {Medieval reading in the twenty-first century?},

author = {Aengus Ward and Shiyu He},

doi = {10.1093/llc/fqae056},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Digital Scholarship in the Humanities},

volume = {39},

number = {4},

pages = {1134–1155},

abstract = {Reading practices in medieval manuscripts have often been the subject of critical analysis in the past. Recent technological developments have extended the range of analytical possibilities; one such development is that of eye tracking. In the present article, we outline the results of an experiment using eye tracking technologies which were carried out recently in Spain. The analysis points to particular trends in the ways in which modern readers interact with medieval textual forms and we use this analysis to point to future possibilities in the use of eye tracking to broaden and deepen our understanding of the workings of the medieval page.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Wang2024e,

title = {Column setting and text justification influence return-sweep eye movement behavior during Chinese multi-line reading},

author = {Mengsi Wang and Donna E. Gill and Jeannie Judge and Chuanli Zang and Xuejun Bai and Simon P. Liversedge},

doi = {10.1186/s41235-024-00559-5},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications},

volume = {9},

number = {1},

pages = {1–18},

publisher = {Springer International Publishing},

abstract = {People regularly read multi-line texts in different formats and publishers, internationally, must decide how to present text to make reading most effective and efficient. Relatively few studies have examined multi-line reading, and fewer still Chinese multi-line reading. Here, we examined whether texts presented in single or double columns, and either left-justified or fully-justified affect Chinese reading. Text format had minimal influence on overall reading time; however, it significantly impacted return-sweeps (large saccades moving the eyes from the end of one line of text to the beginning of the next). Return-sweeps were launched and landed further away from margins and involved more corrective saccades in single- than double-column format. For left- compared to fully-justified format, return-sweeps were launched and landed closer to margins. More corrective saccades also occurred. Our results showed more efficient return-sweep behavior for fully- than left-justified text. Moreover, there were clear trade-off effects such that formats requiring increased numbers of shorter return-sweeps produced more accurate targeting and reduced numbers of corrective fixations, whereas formats requiring reduced numbers of longer return-sweeps caused less accurate targeting and an increased rate of corrective fixations. Overall, our results demonstrate that text formats substantially affect return-sweep eye movement behavior during Chinese reading without affecting efficiency and effectiveness, that is, the overall time it takes to read and understand the text.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Wang2024b,

title = {The effect of visual word segmentation cues in Tibetan reading},

author = {Danhui Wang and Dingyi Niu and Tianzhi Li and Xiaolei Gao},

doi = {10.3390/brainsci14100964},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Brain Sciences},

volume = {14},

number = {10},

pages = {1–20},

abstract = {Background/Objectives: In languages with within-word segmentation cues, the removal or replacement of these cues in a text hinders reading and lexical recognition, and adversely affects saccade target selection during reading. However, the outcome of artificially introducing visual word segmentation cues into a language that lacks them is unknown. Tibetan exemplifies a language that does not provide visual cues for word segmentation, relying solely on visual cues for morpheme segmentation. Moreover, previous studies have not examined word segmentation in the Tibetan language. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of artificially incorporated visual word segmentation cues and basic units of information processing in Tibetan reading. Methods: We used eye-tracking technology and conducted two experiments with Tibetan sentences that artificially incorporated interword spaces and color alternation markings as visual segmentation cues. Conclusions: The results indicated that interword spaces facilitate reading and lexical recognition and aid in saccade target selection during reading. Color alternation markings facilitate reading and vocabulary recognition but do not affect saccade selection. Words are more likely to be the basic units of information processing and exhibit greater psychological reality than morphemes. These findings shed light on the nature and rules of Tibetan reading and provide fundamental data to improve eye movement control models for reading alphabetic writing systems. Furthermore, our results may offer practical guidance and a scientific basis for improving the efficiency of reading, information processing, and word segmentation in Tibetan reading.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Virlet2024,

title = {Proprioceptive intervention improves reading performance in developmental dyslexia: An eye-tracking study},

author = {Luc Virlet and Laurent Sparrow and Jose Barela and Patrick Berquin and Cedrick Bonnet},

doi = {10.1016/j.ridd.2024.104813},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Research in Developmental Disabilities},

volume = {153},

pages = {1–10},

publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},

abstract = {Developmental dyslexia is characterized by difficulties in learning to read, affecting cognition and causing failure at school. Interventions for children with developmental dyslexia have focused on improving linguistic capabilities (phonics, orthographic and morphological instructions), but developmental dyslexia is accompanied by a wide variety of sensorimotor impairments. The goal of this study was to examine the effects of a proprioceptive intervention on reading performance and eye movement in children with developmental dyslexia. Nineteen children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia were randomly assigned to a regular Speech Therapy (ST) or to a Proprioceptive and Speech Intervention (PSI), in which they received both the usual speech therapy and a proprioceptive intervention aimed to correct their sensorimotor impairments (prism glasses, oral neurostimulation, insoles and breathing instructions). Silent reading performance and eye movements were measured pre- and post-intervention (after nine months). In the PSI group, reading performance improved and eye movements were smoother and faster, reaching values similar to those of children with typical reading performance. The recognition of written words also improved, indicating better lexical access. These results show that PSI might constitute a valuable tool for reading improvement children with developmental dyslexia.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Vieira2024,

title = {When function words carry content},

author = {João Vieira and Elisângela Teixeira and Erica Rodrigues and Hayward J. Godwin and Denis Drieghe},

doi = {10.1177/17470218241307582},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology},

pages = {1–14},

abstract = {Studies on eye movements during reading have primarily focussed on the processing of content words (CWs), such as verbs and nouns. Those few studies that have analysed eye movements on function words (FWs), such as articles and prepositions, have reported that FWs are typically skipped more often and, when fixated, receive fewer and shorter fixations than CWs. However, those studies were often conducted in languages where FWs contain comparatively little information (e.g., the in English). In Brazilian Portuguese (BP), FWs can carry gender and number marking. In the present study, we analysed data from the RASTROS corpus of natural reading in BP and examined the effects of word length, predictability, frequency and word class on eye movements. Very limited differences between FWs and CWs were observed mostly restricted to the skipping rates of short words, such that FWs were skipped more often than CWs. For fixation times, differences were either nonexistent or restricted to atypical FWs, such as low frequency FWs, warranting further research. As such, our results are more compatible with studies showing limited or no differences in processing speed between FWs and CWs when influences of word length, frequency and predictability are taken into account.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Valentini2024,

title = {Online processing shows advantages of bimodal listening-while-reading for vocabulary learning: An eye-tracking study},

author = {Alessandra Valentini and Rachel E. Pye and Carmel Houston-Price and Jessie Ricketts and Julie A. Kirkby},

doi = {10.1002/rrq.522},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Reading Research Quarterly},

volume = {59},

number = {1},

pages = {79–101},

abstract = {Children can learn words incidentally from stories. This kind of learning is enhanced when stories are presented both aurally and in written format, compared to just a written presentation. However, we do not know why this bimodal presentation is beneficial. This study explores two possible explanations: whether the bimodal advantage manifests online during story exposure, or later, at word retrieval. We collected eye-movement data from 34 8-to 9-year-old children exposed to two stories, one presented in written format (reading condition), and the second presented aurally and written at the same time (bimodal condition). Each story included six unfamiliar words (non-words) that were repeated three times, as well as definitions and clues to their meaning. Following exposure, the learning of the new words' meanings was assessed. Results showed that, during story presentation, children spent less time fixating the new words in the bimodal condition, compared to the reading condition, indicating that the bimodal advantage occurs online. Learning was greater in the bimodal condition than the reading condition, which may reflect either an online bimodal advantage during story presentation or an advantage at retrieval. The results also suggest that the bimodal condition was more conducive to learning than the reading condition when children looked at the new words for a shorter amount of time. This is in line with an online advantage of the bimodal condition, as it suggests that less effort is required to learn words in this condition. These results support educational strategies that routinely present new vocabulary in two modalities simultaneously.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{TiffinRichards2024a,

title = {Bilingual parafoveal processing: Children and adults preprocess orthographic information of the upcoming word during sentence reading in their first and second language},

author = {Simon P. Tiffin-Richards},

doi = {10.1037/xlm0001346},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},

volume = {50},

number = {11},

pages = {1844–1861},

abstract = {Readers of different ages and across different languages routinely process information of upcoming words in a sentence, before their eyes move to fixate them directly (parafoveal processing). However, there is inconsistent evidence of similar parafoveal processing in a reader's second language (L2). In this eye movement study, the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975a) was used to test whether parafoveal processing of orthographic information is an integral part of both beginning and proficient L2 reading. The eye movements of beginning L2-learners (n = 53, aged 11–14 years) and highly proficient L2-users (n = 56, aged 19–65 years) were recorded while they read sentences in their first language (L1) German and L2 English. Sentences each contained a cognate target word (e.g., English: tunnel, German: Tunnel). The parafoveal preview of the targets either (a) preserved the spelling and meaning of the target (identity condition), (b) preserved letter identities but transposed the position of two adjacent letters (transposed-letter [TL] condition, e.g., tunenl/Tunenl), or substituted the identity of two adjacent letters (substituted-letter condition, e.g., tunocl/Tunocl). TL previews elicited longer early first-pass reading times than identity previews in both L1 and L2 reading in children and adults, suggesting that letter position was processed parafoveally. Substituted-letter previews resulted in longer reading times than TL previews in children and adults in L1 and L2, suggesting that letter identity information was processed independently of position information. These results suggest that letter position and identity information are extracted from the parafovea during L1 and L2 reading, facilitating word recognition in children and adults.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{TiffinRichards2024,

title = {Cognate facilitation in bilingual reading: The influence of orthographic and phonological similarity on lexical decisions and eye-movements},

author = {Simon P. Tiffin-Richards},

doi = {10.1017/S1366728923000949},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition},

pages = {1–18},

abstract = {A central finding of bilingual research is that cognates – words that share semantic, phonological, and orthographic characteristics across languages – are processed faster than non-cognate words. However, it remains unclear whether cognate facilitation effects are reliant on identical cognates, or whether facilitation simply varies along a continuum of cross-language orthographic and phonological similarity. In two experiments, German–English bilinguals read identical cognates, close cognates, and non-cognates in a lexical decision task and a sentence-reading task while their eye movements were recorded. Participants read the stimuli in their L1 German and L2 English. Converging results found comparable facilitation effects of identical and close cognates vs. non-cognates. Cognate facilitation could be described as a continuous linear effect of cross-language orthographic similarity on lexical decision accuracy and latency, as well as fixation durations. Cross-language phonological similarity modulated the continuous orthographic similarity effect in single word recognition, but not in sentence processing.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Tang2024,

title = {Emotion effects in second language processing: Evidence from eye movements in natural sentence reading},

author = {Enze Tang and Hongwei Ding},

doi = {10.1017/S1366728923000718},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Bilingualism},

volume = {27},

number = {3},

pages = {460–479},

abstract = {There exists insufficient eye-tracking evidence on the differences in emotional word processing between the first language (L1) and second language (L2) readers. This study conducted an eye-tracking experiment to investigate the emotional effects in L2 sentence reading, and to explore the modulation of L2 proficiency and individual emotional states. Adapted from Knickerbocker et al. (2015), the current study recorded eye movements at both early and late processing stages when late Chinese–English bilinguals read emotion-label and neutral target words in natural L2 sentences. Results indicated that L2 readers did not show the facilitation effects of lexical affective connotations during sentence reading, and they even demonstrated processing disadvantages for L2 emotional words. Additionally, the interaction effect between L2 proficiency and emotion was consistently significant for the measure of total reading time in positive words. Measurements of participants' depressive and anxious states were not robustly correlated with eye movement measures. Our findings supplemented new evidence to existing sparse eye-tracking experiments on L2 emotion processing, and lent support to several theoretical frameworks in the bilingual research field, including the EMOTIONAL CONTEXTS OF LEARNING THEORY, LEXICAL QUALITY HYPOTHESIS and REVISED HIERARCHICAL MODEL.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Szarkowska2024a,

title = {Watching subtitled videos with the sound off affects viewers' comprehension, cognitive load, immersion, enjoyment, and gaze patterns: A mixed-methods eye-tracking study},

author = {Agnieszka Szarkowska and Valentina Ragni and Sonia Szkriba and Sharon Black and David Orrego-Carmona and Jan Louis Kruger},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0306251},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {PLoS ONE},

volume = {19},

number = {10},

pages = {1–29},

abstract = {Every day, millions of viewers worldwide engage with subtitled content, and an increasing number choose to watch without sound. In this mixed-methods study, we examine the impact of sound presence or absence on the viewing experience of both first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) viewers when they watch subtitled videos. We explore this novel phenomenon through comprehension and recall post-tests, self-reported cognitive load, immersion, and enjoyment measures, as well as gaze pattern analysis using eye tracking. We also investigate viewers' motivations for opting for audiovisual content without sound and explore how the absence of sound impacts their viewing experience, using in-depth, semi-structured interviews. Our goal is to ascertain whether these effects are consistent among L2 and L1 speakers from different language varieties. To achieve this, we tested L1-British English, L1-Australian English and L2-English (L1-Polish) language speakers (n = 168) while they watched English-language audiovisual material with English subtitles with and without sound. The findings show that when watching videos without sound, viewers experienced increased cognitive load, along with reduced comprehension, immersion and overall enjoyment. Examination of participants' gaze revealed that the absence of sound significantly affected the viewing experience, increasing the need for subtitles and thus increasing the viewers' propensity to process them more thoroughly. The absence of sound emerged as a global constraint that made reading more effortful. Triangulating data from multiple sources made it possible to tap into some of the metacognitive strategies employed by viewers to maintain comprehension in the absence of sound. We discuss the implications within the context of the growing trend of watching subtitled videos without sound, emphasising its potential impact on cognitive processes and the viewing experience.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Szarkowska2024,

title = {The impact of video and subtitle speed on subtitle reading: An eye-tracking replication study},

author = {Agnieszka Szarkowska and Valentina Ragni and David Orrego-Carmona and Sharon Black and Sonia Szkriba and Jan-Louis Louis Kruger and Krzysztof Krejtz and Breno Silva},

doi = {10.47476/jat.v7i1.2024.283},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Audiovisual Translation},

volume = {7},

number = {1},

pages = {1–23},

abstract = {We present results of a direct replication of Liao et al.'s (2021) study on how subtitle speed and the presence of concurrent video impact subtitle reading among British and Polish viewers. Our goal was to assess the generalisability of the original study's findings on a cohort of Australian English. The study explored both subtitle-level and word-level effects, considering the presence or absence of concurrent video and three subtitle speeds: 12 characters per second, 20 cps, and 28 cps. Overall, most of the original results were replicated, confirming that the presence of video and the speed of the subtitles have a measurable impact on processing across different viewer groups. Additionally, differences in how native and non-native speakers process subtitles emerged, in particular related to wrap-up, word frequency and word length effects. The paper describes the replication in detail, presents the findings, and discusses some of their implications. Lay summary In our study we were interested in the effects that the presence of video and various subtitle speeds have on how viewers watch subtitled videos and how they understand them. We also wanted to know if the previous results obtained in a study by Liao et al. (2021) in Australia hold true for other viewers living in different locations. With this goal in mind, we repeated Liao et al.'s (2021) study on British and Polish viewers. The study explored both subtitle-level and word-level effects, considering the presence or absence of video and three subtitle speeds: 12 characters per second, 20 cps, and 28 cps. Overall, most of the original results were confirmed, showing that the presence of video and the speed of the subtitles have an impact on processing across different viewer groups. Additionally, differences in how native and non-native speakers process subtitles emerged, in particular related to well-known linguistic effects from reading studies, such as wrap-up, word frequency and word length effects. The paper describes the replication in detail, presents the findings, and discusses some of their implications.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sun2024e,

title = {Parafoveal word frequency does not modulate the effect of foveal load on preview in Chinese reading: Evidence from eye movements},

author = {Yue Sun and Sainan Li and Yancui Zhang and Jingxin Wang},

doi = {10.3390/brainsci14040360},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Brain Sciences},

volume = {14},

number = {4},

pages = {1–13},

abstract = {The foveal load effect is one of the most fundamental effects in reading psychology, and also one of the most controversial issues in recent years. The foveal load effect refers to the phenomenon that the difficulty of foveal processing affects parafoveal preview. In Chinese reading, whether the foveal load effect exists, as well as whether this effect is modulated by parafoveal word frequency, remains unclear. In this study, the eye-tracking technique was used to track the eye movements of 48 subjects. Utilized the boundary paradigm with single-character words as parafoveal words, the present study manipulated foveal word frequency (high and low), parafoveal word frequency (high and low), and two types of preview (identical preview and pseudocharacter preview) to investigate these questions. The results revealed that the foveal word frequency does not influence preview, suggesting the absence of the foveal load effect when using single-character words as parafoveal words. Furthermore, parafoveal word frequency does not modulate the effect of the foveal load on the preview. This empirical evidence contributes to refining the understanding of the Chinese reading model.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Su2024a,

title = {Development and validation of the simplified Chinese Author Recognition Test: Evidence from eye movements of Chinese adults in Mainland China},

author = {Yongqiang Su and Yixun Li and Hong Li},

doi = {10.1111/1467-9817.12437},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Research in Reading},

volume = {47},

number = {1},

pages = {20–44},

abstract = {Background: It is well evident that individuals' levels of print exposure are significantly correlated with their reading ability across languages, and an author recognition test is commonly used to measure print exposure objectively. For the first time, the current work developed and validated a Simplified Chinese Author Recognition Test (SCART) and examined its role in explaining Chinese online reading. Methods: In Study 1, we constructed the SCART for readers of simplified Chinese and validated the test using data collected from 203 young adults in Mainland China. Participants were measured on the SCART and three self-report tasks about their reading experiences and habits. Study 2 recruited additional 68 young adults in Mainland and measured their print exposure (with the same tasks used in Study 1), reading-related cognitive ability (working memory, rapid automatic naming, Chinese character reading, and vocabulary knowledge), and Chinese online reading via an eye-tracking passage reading task. Results: Results of Study 1 support the high reliability and validity of the SCART. Results of Study 2 indicate that SCART scores significantly predicted participants' online reading processing while controlling for subjective reading experiences and habits, and reading-related cognitive abilities. Across two studies, we found converging evidence that the in-depth recognition of the authors (i.e., participants have read the books written by these authors) appears to be a better indicator of print exposure than the superficial recognition of the author names. Conclusions: Taken together, this work filled in the gap in the literature by providing an evidence-based, objective print exposure measure for simplified Chinese and contributes to a broader understanding of print exposure and online reading processing across different writing systems.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sturt2024,

title = {Agreement attraction in comprehension: Do active dependencies and distractor position play a role?},

author = {Patrick Sturt and Nayoung Kwon},

doi = {10.1080/23273798.2023.2269282},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Language, Cognition and Neuroscience},

volume = {39},

number = {3},

pages = {279–301},

abstract = {Across four eye-tracking studies and one self-paced reading study, we test whether attraction in subject-verb agreement is affected by (a) the relative linear positions of target and distractor, and (b) the active dependency status of the distractor. We find an effect of relative position, with greater attraction in retro-active interference configurations, where the distractor is linearly closer to the critical verb (Subject…Distractor…V) than in pro-active interference where it is more distant (Distractor…Subject…V). However, within pro-active interference configurations, attraction was not affected by the active dependency status of the distractor: attraction effects were similarly small whether or not the distractor was waiting to complete an upcoming dependency at the critical verb, with Bayes Factor analyses showing evidence in favour of a null effect of active dependency status. We discuss these findings in terms of the decay of activation, and whether such decay is affected by maintenance of features in memory.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Stringer2024,

title = {Deaf readers use leftward information to read more efficiently: Evidence from eye tracking},

author = {Casey Stringer and Frances Cooley and Emily Saunders and Karen Emmorey and Elizabeth R. Schotter},

doi = {10.1177/17470218241232407},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology},

volume = {77},

number = {10},

pages = {2098 –2110},

abstract = {Little is known about how information to the left of fixation impacts reading and how it may help to integrate what has been read into the context of the sentence. To better understand the role of this leftward information and how it may be beneficial during reading, we compared the sizes of the leftward span for reading-matched deaf signers (n = 32) and hearing adults (n = 40) using a gaze-contingent moving window paradigm with windows of 1, 4, 7, 10, and 13 characters to the left, as well as a no-window condition. All deaf participants were prelingually and profoundly deaf, used American Sign Language (ASL) as a primary means of communication, and were exposed to ASL before age eight. Analysis of reading rates indicated that deaf readers had a leftward span of 10 characters, compared to four characters for hearing readers, and the size of the span was positively related to reading comprehension ability for deaf but not hearing readers. These findings suggest that deaf readers may engage in continued word processing of information obtained to the left of fixation, making reading more efficient, and showing a qualitatively different reading process than hearing readers.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Stern2024,

title = {Unique patterns of eye movements characterizing inattentive reading in ADHD},

author = {Pnina Stern and Tamar Kolodny and Shlomit Tsafrir and Galit Cohen and Lilach Shalev},

doi = {10.1177/10870547231223728},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Attention Disorders},

volume = {28},

number = {6},

pages = {1008–1016},

abstract = {Objective: We aimed to identify unique patterns of eye-movements measures reflecting inattentive reading among adults with and without ADHD. Method & Results: We recorded eye-movements during uninterrupted text reading of typically developed (TD) and ADHD adults. First, we found significantly longer reading time for the ADHD group than the TD group. Further, we detected cases in which words were reread more than twice and found that such occasions were much more frequent in participants with ADHD than in TD participants. Moreover, we discovered that the first reading pass of these words was less sensitive to the length of the word than the first pass of words read only once, indicating a less meaningful reading. Conclusion: We propose that high rate of words that were reread is a correlate of inattentive reading which is more pronounced among ADHD readers. Implications of the findings in the context of reading comprehension are discussed.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Staub2024,

title = {Perceptual inference corrects function word errors in reading: Errors that are not noticed do not disrupt eye movements},

author = {Adrian Staub and Harper McMurray and Anthony Wickett},

doi = {10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101691},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Cognitive Psychology},

volume = {154},

pages = {1–16},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Both everyday experience and laboratory research demonstrate that readers often fail to notice errors such as an omitted or repeated function word. This phenomenon challenges central tenets of reading and sentence processing models, according to which each word is lexically processed and incrementally integrated into a syntactic representation. One solution would propose that apparent failure to notice such errors reflects post-perceptual inference; the reader does initially perceive the error, but then unconsciously 'corrects' the perceived string. Such a post-perceptual account predicts that when readers fail to explicitly notice an error, the error will nevertheless disrupt reading, at least fleetingly. We present a large-scale eyetracking experiment investigating whether disruption is detectable in the eye movement record when readers fail to notice an omitted or repeated two-letter function word in naturalistic sentences. Readers failed to notice both omission and repetition errors over 36% of the time. In an analysis that included all trials, both omission and repetition resulted in pronounced eye movement disruption, compared to reading of grammatical control sentences. But in an analysis including only trials on which readers failed to notice the errors, neither type of error disrupted eye movements on any measure. Indeed, there was evidence in some measures that reading was relatively fast on the trials on which errors were missed. It does not appear that when an error is not consciously noticed, it is initially perceived, and then later corrected; rather, linguistic knowledge influences what the reader perceives.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Staub2024a,

title = {The function/content word distinction and eye movements in reading},

author = {Adrian Staub},

doi = {10.1037/xlm0001301},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},

volume = {50},

number = {6},

pages = {967–984},

abstract = {A substantial quantity of research has explored whether readers' eye movements are sensitive to the distinction between function and content words. No clear answer has emerged, in part due to the difficulty of accounting for differences in length, frequency, and predictability between the words in the two classes. Based on evidence that readers differentially overlook function word errors, we hypothesized that function words may be more frequently skipped or may receive shorter fixations. We present two very large-scale eyetracking experiments using selected sentences from a corpus of natural text, with each sentence containing a target function or content word. The target words in the two classes were carefully matched on length, frequency, and predictability, with the latter variable operationalized in terms of next-word probability obtained from the large language model GPT-2. While the experiments replicated a range of expected effects, word class did not have any clear influence on target word skipping probability, and there was some evidence for a content word advantage in fixation duration measures. These results indicate that readers' tendency to overlook function word errors is not due to reduced time spent encoding these words. The results also broadly support the implicit assumption in prominent models of eye movement control in reading that a word's syntactic category does not play an important role in decisions about when and where to move the eyes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Solaja2024,

title = {The role of morphology in novel word learning: A registered report},

author = {Olga Solaja and Davide Crepaldi},

doi = {10.1098/rsos.230094},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Royal Society Open Science},

volume = {11},

number = {6},

pages = {1–30},

publisher = {The Royal Society},

abstract = {The majority of the new words that we learn every day as adults are morphologically complex; yet, we do not know much about the role of morphology in novel word learning. In this study, we tackle this issue by comparing the learning of: (i) suffixed novel words (e.g. flibness); (ii) novel words that end in non-morphological, but frequent letter chunks (e.g. fliban); and (iii) novel words with non-morphological, low-frequency endings (e.g. flibov). Words are learned incidentally through sentence reading, while the participants' eye movements are monitored. We show that morphology has a facilitatory role compared with the other two types of novel words, both during learning and in a post-learning recognition memory task. We also showed that participants attributed meaning to word parts (if flibness is a state of happiness, then flib must mean happy), but this process was not specifically triggered by the presence of a suffix (flib must also mean happy in fliban and flibov), thus suggesting that the brain tends to assume similar meanings for similar words and word parts.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Smith2024a,

title = {Eye movements of persons with aphasia during connected-text reading},

author = {Kimberly G. Smith and Sarah C. McWilliams and Joseph Schmidt},

doi = {10.1080/02687038.2024.2413620},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Aphasiology},

pages = {1–14},

publisher = {Routledge},

abstract = {Background: Eye movements reflect the cognitive-linguistic processing of neurotypical readers. Numerous reading related eye movement measures are associated with language processing, including first fixation duration, gaze duration, number of fixations, word skipping, and regressions. Eye movements have also been used to examine reading in neuro-atypical populations including persons with aphasia (PWA). Aims: This study aimed to determine whether eye movement measures obtained from connected text reading differ among persons with varying types of aphasia and neurotypical individuals, as well as whether eye movement measures are associated with language processing severity and reading comprehension ability in PWA. Methods: Twenty-four PWA and twenty-four age-matched control participants completed a connected text-reading eye-tracking task. The PWA also completed assessments to evaluate overall language processing severity and reading comprehension skills and to identify specific subtypes of aphasia. Results: Persons with aphasia had shorter gaze duration, longer regression duration, and made more fixations than control participants, while no group differences emerged for first fixation duration or word skipping. Eye movement patterns did not differ among participants with anomic, Broca's, or conduction/Wernicke's. Language severity scores were a significant factor for gaze duration, while reading comprehension scores were not a significant factor for the eye movement measures examined. Conclusions: The findings support previous eye tracking literature that indicate different eye movement patterns for persons with aphasia during text reading relative to neurotypical controls. The findings also highlight that the selection of eye movement measures examined, the stimuli used, and procedural considerations may impact the pattern of results. The results from this study can be used to further determine which eye movement measures may be most suited for studying language processing during reading in neuro-atypical individuals and determine whether persons with aphasia use different strategies for reading comprehension than neurotypical individuals.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sluis2024,

title = {A recipe for success: The design, use, and effectiveness of multimodal online baking instructions},

author = {Ielka Van Der Sluis and Hanna Mellema},

doi = {10.1177/26349795241305281},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Multimodality & Society},

pages = {1–70},

abstract = {This paper presents three studies on the design, use and effectiveness of multimodal online baking blogs that present cookie recipes in two forms: illustrated step-by-step Instructions with Pictures and printable text-only Recipe Cards. Firstly, a corpus study describes how authors combine text and pictures in 15 blogs. Secondly, an eye-tracking study was conducted to explore how 12 participants read and evaluate baking blogs and the Instructions with Pictures in them. Finally, a user study was conducted to explore how 4 teams of participants execute and evaluate either an Instruction with Pictures or a Recipe Card of a typical baking blog. Questionnaire data on the readers' and users' judgments of the comprehensibility, design and their (expected) performance of the instructions, as well as eye-tracker data and videos capturing the reading and baking practices were collected and analysed. Thus, the triangulation of exploratory studies displays how different research methodologies inform the relevance and evaluation of particular characteristics of multimodal presentations given the readers' and users' judgments as well as through objective measurements that provide complementary insights on multimodal baking instructions in terms of multimodal information presen- tation, reading strategies and situated use. wibble99},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Shiang2024,

title = {Embodied cognition and L2 sentence comprehension: An eye-tracking study of motor representations},

author = {Ruei-Fang Shiang and Chiou-Lan Chern and Hsueh-Chih Chen},

doi = {10.3389/fnhum.2024.1410242},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Frontiers in Human Neuroscience},

volume = {18},

pages = {1–18},

abstract = {Introduction: Evidence from neuroscience and behavioral research has indicated that language meaning is grounded in our motor–perceptual experiences of the world. However, the question of whether motor embodiment occurs at the sentence level in L2 (second language) comprehension has been raised. Furthermore, existing studies on motor embodiment in L2 have primarily focused on the lexical and phrasal levels, often providing conflicting and indeterminate results. Therefore, to address this gap, the present eye-tracking study aimed to explore the embodied mental representations formed during the reading comprehension of L2 action sentences. Specifically, it sought to identify the types of motor representations formed during L2 action sentence comprehension and the extent to which these representations are motor embodied. Methods: A total of 56 advanced L2 learners participated in a Sentence–Picture Verification Task, during which their response times (RTs) and eye movements were recorded. Each sentence–picture pair depicted an action that either matched or mismatched the action implied by the sentence. Data analysis focused on areas of interest around the body effectors. Results and discussion: RTs in the mismatch condition indicated an impeding effect. Furthermore, fixations on the body effector executing an action were longer in the mismatch condition, especially in late eye-movement measures.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Shi2024c,

title = {The immediate integration of semantic selectional restrictions of Chinese social hierarchical verbs with extralinguistic social hierarchical information in comprehension},

author = {Yajiao Shi and Tongquan Zhou and Simin Zhao and Zhenghui Sun and Zude Zhu},

doi = {10.1017/langcog.2024.11},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Language and Cognition},

volume = {16},

number = {4},

pages = {1418–1432},

abstract = {Social hierarchical information impacts language comprehension. Nevertheless, the specific process underlying the integration of linguistic and extralinguistic sources of social hierarchical information has not been identified. For example, the Chinese social hierarchical verb shan4yang3/, 'support: provide for the needs and comfort of one's elders', only allows its Agent to have a lower social status than the Patient. Using eye-tracking, we examined the precise time course of the integration of these semantic selectional restrictions of Chinese social hierarchical verbs and extralinguistic social hierarchical information during natural reading. A 2 (Verb Type: hierarchical vs. non-hierarchical) × 2 (Social Hierarchy Sequence: match vs. mismatch) design was constructed to investigate the effect of the interaction on early and late eye-tracking measures. Thirty-two participants (15 males; age range: 18-24 years) read sentences and judged the plausibility of each sentence. The results showed that violations of semantic selectional restrictions of Chinese social hierarchical verbs induced shorter first fixation duration but longer regression path duration and longer total reading time on sentence-final nouns (NP2). These differences were absent under non-hierarchical conditions. The results suggest that a mismatch between linguistic and extralinguistic social hierarchical information is immediately detected and processed.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Shi2024b,

title = {Predicting Chinese reading proficiency based on eye movement features and machine learning},

author = {Weiqing Shi and Xin Jiang},

doi = {10.1007/s11145-024-10563-2},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Reading and Writing},

pages = {1–25},

publisher = {Springer Netherlands},

abstract = {This study explores the effectiveness of machine learning and eye movement features in predicting Chinese reading proficiency. Unlike previous research, which focused on one or two specific levels of eye movement features, this study integrates passage-, sentence- and word-level eye movement features to predict reading proficiency. By analyzing the eye movements of 71 native Chinese-speaking undergraduate students as they read nine short passages, a support vector machine was constructed to predict Chinese reading proficiency. Proficiency was determined based on performance on the Chinese achievement test in the National College Entrance Examination and scores from the cloze test. The results indicate that the model, which utilizes passage-, sentence- and word-level eye movement features comprehensively, achieves the highest prediction accuracy (81.69%, 84.71%). Nevertheless, eye movement features at the word, sentence, and passage levels each play a unique role in predicting Chinese reading proficiency. The results provide empirical support for the relationship between eye movement features at different levels and the reading proficiency of Chinese readers. The outcomes highlight the feasibility of integrating eye movement features at the passage, sentence, and word levels, and of employing support vector machine to construct a predictive model for the reading proficiency of Chinese readers.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Sheridan2024,

title = {Emojis elicit semantic parafoveal-on-foveal (PoF) effects during reading},

author = {Heather Sheridan and Eliza Barach and Andriana L. Christofalos and Laurie Beth Feldman},

doi = {10.1080/13506285.2024.2398617},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Visual Cognition},

volume = {32},

number = {2},

pages = {151–161},

abstract = {Semantic parafoveal-on-foveal (PoF) effects, in which the meaning of a parafoveal word influences the processing of the foveal word, indicate that readers engage in extensive parafoveal processing of upcoming words. To test if emojis elicit semantic PoF effects, we examined eye movements while participants read sentences containing a target word (e.g., coffee in “I enjoyed my tall coffee”) that was followed either by a semantically congruent emoji (e.g., (Formula presented.); Alt text: “coffee emoji”), an incongruent emoji (e.g., (Formula presented.); Alt text: “beer mug emoji”), or no emoji. First-pass fixation durations were shorter on the foveal target word when the parafoveal emoji was semantically congruent rather than incongruent. Furthermore, the presence of an emoji (compared to no emoji) led to faster first-pass fixation durations for the preceding target word, which indicates that emojis can modulate the processing of preceding words.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Shechter2024,

title = {Language-universal and script-specific factors in the recognition of letters in visual crowding: The effects of lexicality, hemifield, and transitional probabilities in a right-to-left script},

author = {Adi Shechter and Sivan Medina and David L. Share and Amit Yashar},

doi = {10.1016/j.cortex.2023.10.021},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Cortex},

volume = {171},

pages = {319–329},

publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},

abstract = {Peripheral letter recognition is fundamentally limited not by the visibility of letters but by the spacing between them, i.e., ‘crowding'. Crowding imposes a significant constraint on reading, however, the interplay between crowding and reading is not fully understood. Using a letter recognition task in varying display conditions, we investigated the effects of lexicality (words versus pseudowords), visual hemifield, and transitional letter probability (bigram/trigram frequency) among skilled readers (N = 14. and N = 13) in Hebrew – a script read from right to left. We observed two language-universal effects: a lexicality effect and a right hemifield (left hemisphere) advantage, as well as a strong language-specific effect – a left bigram advantage stemming from the right-to-left reading direction of Hebrew. The latter finding suggests that transitional probabilities are essential for parafoveal letter recognition. The results reveal that script-specific contextual information such as letter combination probabilities is used to accurately identify crowded letters.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Shabat2024,

title = {Intact high-level visual functions in congenital rod-monochromacy},

author = {Sheer Shabat and Ayelet McKyton and Deena Elul and Devora Marks Ohana and Einav Nahmany and Eyal Banin and Netta Levin},

doi = {10.3389/fnins.2024.1418916},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Frontiers in Neuroscience},

volume = {18},

pages = {1–8},

abstract = {High-level visual functions such as reading and face recognition rely on global processes, which are often insensitive to high spatial frequencies. However, it is unknown whether a sharp cone signal is necessary for the development of these skills or whether a blurry rod signal is sufficient. CNGA3/B3-achromatopsia is a congenital disease stemming from cone dysfunction, leading to rod-only vision characterized by nystagmus, impaired acuity, and complete color blindness. We tested reading and face recognition in CNGA3/B3-achromatopsia patients (ACHM) to determine whether a rod signal is sufficient for these skills to develop. We tested 10 ACHM and 10 controls in three experiments under dark and light conditions. Initially, we evaluated acuity along the eccentricity axis. Later, we tested reading speed and upright/inverted face matching accuracy while tracking participants' eye movements. Given that ACHM patients' acuity under light conditions resembled that of controls under dark conditions, we selected these conditions for comparison. Remarkably, ACHM reading speed, face recognition abilities, and susceptibility to face inversion were not inferior to those of controls. Additionally, ACHM patients exhibited similar eye movements to controls, focusing their attention on specific areas of words and faces that indicate expertise. Despite the evident low-level limitations, ACHM patients demonstrated notable high-level visual skills, suggesting that rod-only vision is sufficient for the development of proficient reading and face recognition. These findings not only corroborate empirical evidence for high-level vision models but also enrich the discussion regarding the reasons for high-level deficits observed in individuals who have gained sight late in life.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Schotter2024,

title = {The role of perceptual and word identification spans in reading efficiency: Evidence from hearing and deaf readers},

author = {Elizabeth R. Schotter and Casey Stringer and Emily Saunders and Frances G. Cooley and Grace Sinclair and Karen Emmorey},

doi = {10.1037/xge0001633},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: General},

volume = {153},

number = {10},

pages = {2359–2377},

abstract = {Theories of reading posit that decisions about "where" and "when" to move the eyes are driven by visual and linguistic factors, extracted from the perceptual span and word identification span, respectively. We tested this hypothesized dissociation by masking, outside of a visible window, either the spaces between the words (to assess the perceptual span, Experiment 1) or the letters within the words (to assess the word identification span, Experiment 2). We also investigated whether deaf readers' previously reported larger reading span was specifically linked to one of these spans. We analyzed reading rate to test overall reading efficiency, as well as average saccade length to test "where" decisions and average fixation duration to test "when" decisions. Both hearing and deaf readers' perceptual spans extended between 10 and 14 characters, and their word identification spans extended to eight characters to the right of fixation. Despite similar sized rightward spans, deaf readers read more efficiently overall and showed a larger increase in reading rate when leftward text was available, suggesting they attend more to leftward information. Neither rightward span was specifically related to where or when decisions for either group. Our results challenge the assumed dissociation between type of reading span and type of saccade decision and indicate that reading efficiency requires access to both perceptual and linguistic information in the parafovea. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Scholman2024,

title = {Facilitation of a lexical form or a discourse relation: Evidence from pairs of contrastive discourse markers},

author = {Merel C. J. Scholman and Hannah Rohde and Vera Demberg},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Glossa Psycholinguistics},

volume = {3},

number = {1},

pages = {1–29},

abstract = {Research has shown that people anticipate upcoming linguistic content, but evidence regarding expectations of specific lexical markers is mixed. We use the Dutch pair of discourse markers Aan de ene kant…Aan de andere kant (‘On the one hand…On the other hand') and Enerzijds… Anderzijds (also equivalent to ‘On the one hand…On the other hand') to test whether readers generate predictions of an upcoming contrast dependency based on the lexical marker for the first contrastive segment, and whether processing of the lexical marker for the second segment is facilitated (i) when the first segment contains a lexical marker to signal the upcoming contrast, and (ii) when that marker directly matches that of the second segment. In a self-paced reading study, we show that readers do generate expectations for upcoming discourse markers, in that the presence of a marker on the first segment facilitates processing of the marker on the second segment, but that a directly matching lexical form does not yield further facilitation. In an eye- tracking study, we replicate the facilitative effect of the first marker of a lexical pair on the processing of the second marker, and show that this effect occurs in immediate processing. These results establish expectation-driven effects at the discourse level in early reading time measures, showing that comprehenders are aware of the discourse dependency established by a discourse marker and are flexible in identifying and integrating discourse relations with different markers.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Schad2024,

title = {Supplemental material for mental effort during mindless reading? Pupil fluctuations indicate internal processing during levels of inattention},

author = {Daniel J Schad and Antje Nuthmann and R Frank and Ralf Engbert},

doi = {10.1037/xlm0001384.supp},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},

volume = {50},

number = {10},

pages = {1637–1649},

abstract = {Mind wandering, an experience characterized by a reduced external focus of attention and an increased internal focus, has seen significant theoretical advancement in understanding its underlying cognitive processes. The levels-of-inattention hypothesis posits that in mind wandering, external attention is reduced in a graded fashion, reflecting different levels of weak versus deep attentional decoupling. However, it has remained unclear whether internal processing during mind wandering, and mindless reading in particular, requires effort and, if so, whether it is graded or distinct. To address this, we analyzed pupil size as a measure of cognitive load in the sustained-attention-to-stimulus task during text reading. We examined whether decoupled external attention is linked to an overall reduction in workload and whether internal focus of attention is graded or represents a distinct cognitive process. Overall, overlooking errors in the text was associated with a small pupil size, indicating reduced effortful processing. However, this effect varied with error type: overlooking high- or medium-level errors (weak decoupling) resulted in reduced pupil size, while overlooking low-level errors (deep decoupling) had no effect on pupil size. Moreover, detecting an error (at any processing level) elicited a task-evoked pupillary response, which was absent when it was overlooked. These findings suggest that weak decoupling reduces internal resource-demanding processing and are in line with the hypothesis that large pupils during deep decoupling may be associated with distinct states of effortful internal processing. They further support both the levels-of-inattention hypothesis and the notion that internal focus is a distinct mode of deeply decoupled processing.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Saunders2024,

title = {Activation of ASL signs during sentence reading for deaf readers: Evidence from eye-tracking},

author = {Emily Saunders and Jonathan Mirault and Karen Emmorey},

doi = {10.1017/S1366728924000336},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Bilingualism: Language and Cognition},

pages = {1–9},

abstract = {Bilinguals activate both of their languages as they process written words, regardless of modality (spoken or signed); these effects have primarily been documented in single word reading paradigms. We used eye-tracking to determine whether deaf bilingual readers (n = 23) activate American Sign Language (ASL) translations as they read English sentences. Sentences contained a target word and one of the two possible prime words: a related prime which shared phonological parameters (location, handshape or movement) with the target when translated into ASL or an unrelated prime. The results revealed that first fixation durations and gaze durations (early processing measures) were shorter when target words were preceded by ASL-related primes, but prime condition did not impact later processing measures (e.g., regressions). Further, less-skilled readers showed a larger ASL co-activation effect. Together, the results indicate that ASL co-activation impacts early lexical access and can facilitate reading, particularly for less-skilled deaf readers.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Rettie2024,

title = {Auditory distraction during reading: Investigating the effects of background sounds on parafoveal processing},

author = {Laura Rettie and John E. Marsh and Simon P. Liversedge and Mengsi Wang and Federica Degno},

doi = {10.1177/17470218241269327},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology},

pages = {1–24},

abstract = {Previous research suggests that unexpected (deviant) sounds negatively affect reading performance by inhibiting saccadic planning, which models of reading agree takes place simultaneous to parafoveal processing. This study examined the effect of deviant sounds on foveal and parafoveal processing. Participants read single sentences in quiet, standard (repeated sounds), or deviant sound conditions (a new sound within a repeated sound sequence). Sounds were presented with a variable delay coincident with the onset of fixations on target words during a period when saccadic programming and parafoveal processing occurred. We used the moving window paradigm to manipulate the amount of information readers could extract from the parafovea (the entire sentence or a 13-character window of text). Global, sentence-level analyses showed typical disruption to reading by the window, and under quiet conditions similar effects were observed at the target and post-target word in the local analyses. Standard and deviant sounds also produced clear distraction effects of differing magnitudes at the target and post-target words, though at both regions, these effects were qualified by interactions. Effects at the target word suggested that with sounds, readers engaged in less effective parafoveal processing than under quiet. Similar patterns of effects due to standard and deviant sounds, each with a different time course, occurred at the post-target word. We conclude that distraction via auditory deviation causes disruption to parafoveal processing during reading, with such effects being modulated by the degree to which a sound's characteristics are more or less unique.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Renckens2024,

title = {An exploratory study evaluating the influence of taller stripe patterns on reading comfort using ranking tests, reading tests, EEG's, and eye tracking},

author = {Maarten Renckens},

doi = {10.34314/w29ewx38},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Visible Language},

volume = {58},

number = {1},

pages = {6–37},

abstract = {The Latin script has a vertical stripe pattern in it, which is known to cause visual discomfort. This study started from the hypothesis that a lower stripe pattern could result in better visual comfort than a taller stripe pattern. I evaluated this hypothesis with several letterforms and their correlating stripe patterns, tested in four independent tests: a ranking test, reading progression, measuring neurological response, and measuring eye movements. The results provide some indications that taller stripe patterns are less comfortable, but those results were mostly outside the range of common letter sizes for reading texts. Also, results for letterforms and plain stripe patterns differed. The results suggest that multiple design parameters influence reading comfort simultaneously, and that ‘the number of design details per surface' is a design parameter that could play an important role in determining reading comfort. This needs to be evaluated in further studies.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Puimege2024,

title = {The effects of typographic enhancement on L2 collocation processing and learning from reading: An eye-tracking study},

author = {Eva Puimege and Maribel Montero Perez and Elke Peters and Maribel Montero Perez and Elke Peters},

doi = {10.1093/applin/amad003},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Applied Linguistics},

volume = {45},

number = {1},

pages = {88–110},

abstract = {Collocations play a crucial part in the development of fluent, native-like second language knowledge. Several studies have shown that typographic enhancement can promote learners' engagement with, and learning of collocations in meaning-focused activities such as reading. However, it is unclear whether the attention-raising effect of TE extends to later encounters in unenhanced contexts, and how the combination of TE and unenhanced repetition affects collocation knowledge. The present study used eye-tracking and offline tests to examine the effects of typographic enhancement and repeated exposure on L2 learning of collocations from reading. The results show that the attention-raising effect of typographic enhancement does not necessarily extend to later exposures, and that repeated exposure following enhanced attention has minimal effects on learners' collocation knowledge. These findings have implications for the use of typographic enhancement in second language reading materials, and may be interpreted in relation to the role of salience in collocation learning from meaning-focused activities.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Puebla2024,

title = {Discourse-based pronoun resolution in non-native sentence processing},

author = {Cecilia Puebla and Claudia Felser},

doi = {10.1017/S1366728923000676},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Bilingualism},

volume = {27},

pages = {557–571},

abstract = {Personal pronouns can potentially be resolved in logical syntax by means of variable binding (VB) or at the discourse-representational level through coreference assignment (CR). Previous research suggests that real-time reference resolution is guided more strongly by discourse-level cues in a non-native language (L2) than in a native language (L1). Here we use the VB/CR distinction to further test this hypothesis. Using eye-movement monitoring during reading and a complementary questionnaire task, we compared L1 German and L1 Russian/L2 German speakers' resolution of object pronouns. While both our participant groups ultimately preferred CR over VB interpretations, only the L2 participants showed evidence of favouring a sentence-external CR antecedent from early on during processing. Our L1 group, by contrast, favoured a VB antecedent during processing. The observed L1/L2 processing differences reveal divergent antecedent search strategies, with L2 but not L1 speakers being primarily guided by discourse-level cues during real-time comprehension.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Premeti2024,

title = {Visuo-attentional and phonological deficits explored in French students with dyslexia: Eye movements recorded during a phonological lexical decision task},

author = {Aikaterini Premeti and Frédéric Isel and Maria Pia Bucci},

doi = {10.3390/neurolint16020022},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Neurology International},

volume = {16},

number = {2},

pages = {312–326},

abstract = {Whether dyslexia is caused by phonological or attentional dysfunction remains a widely debated issue. To enrich this debate, we compared the eye movements of 32 French university students with (14 students) and without (18 students) dyslexia while performing a delayed phonological lexical decision task on 300 visually presented stimuli. The processing stimuli involved either a lexical (i.e., words) or a non-lexical route relying on a grapheme-phoneme correspondence (pseudohomophones and pseudowords), while other stimuli involved only a visual search (consonant and symbol sequences). We recorded the number of fixations, the duration of the first fixation and the amplitude of saccades made on the stimuli. Compared to the controls, the participants with dyslexia made more fixations while reading regardless of the type of stimulus (lexical and non-lexical). Crucially, the participants with dyslexia exhibited longer first fixations in particular while reading phonologically challenging stimuli such as pseudohomophones and pseudowords compared to stimuli involving a simple visual search (consonants, symbols). Taken together, these results suggest that both visual and phonological impairments may be implicated in dyslexia, supporting the hypothesis that dyslexia is a multifactorial deficit.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Prasse2024,

title = {Improving cognitive-state analysis from eye gaze with synthetic eye-movement data},

author = {Paul Prasse and David R. Reich and Silvia Makowski and Tobias Scheffer and Lena A. Jäger},

doi = {10.1016/j.cag.2024.103901},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Computers & Graphics},

volume = {119},

pages = {1–11},

publisher = {Elsevier Ltd.},

abstract = {Eye movements can be used to analyze a viewer's cognitive capacities or mental state. Neural networks that process the raw eye-tracking signal can outperform methods that operate on scan paths preprocessed into fixations and saccades. However, the scarcity of such data poses a major challenge. We therefore develop SP-EyeGAN, a neural network that generates synthetic raw eye-tracking data. SP-EyeGAN consists of Generative Adversarial Networks; it produces a sequence of gaze angles indistinguishable from human ocular micro- and macro-movements. We explore the use of these synthetic eye movements for pre-training neural networks using contrastive learning. We find that pre-training on synthetic data does not help for biometric identification, while results are inconclusive for the detection of ADHD and gender classification. However, for the eye movement-based assessment of higher-level cognitive skills such general reading comprehension, text comprehension, and the distinction of native from non-native readers, pre-training on synthetic eye-gaze data improves the models' performance and even advances the state-of-the-art for reading comprehension. The SP-EyeGAN model, pre-trained on GazeBase, along with the code for developing your own raw eye-tracking machine learning model with contrastive learning, is available at https://github.com/aeye-lab/sp-eyegan.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Pickard2024,

title = {Toddler screen use before bed and its effect on sleep and attention: A randomized clinical trial},

author = {Hannah Pickard and Petrina Chu and Claire Essex and Emily J. Goddard and Katie Baulcombe and Ben Carter and Rachael Bedford and Tim J. Smith},

doi = {10.1001/jamapediatrics.2024.3997},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {JAMA Pediatrics},

volume = {178},

number = {12},

pages = {1270–1279},

abstract = {IMPORTANCE Toddler screen time has been associated with poorer sleep and differences in attention. Understanding the causal impact of screen time on early development is of the highest importance. OBJECTIVE To test (1) the feasibility of the 7-week parent-administered screen time intervention (PASTI) in toddlers (aged 16-30 months) who have screen time in the hour before bed and (2) the impact of PASTI on toddlers' sleep and attention. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This assessor-blinded, UK-based randomized clinical trial was conducted between July 2022 and July 2023. This was a single-site study that enrolled families with a toddler aged between 16 and 30 months, living within 75 miles of the Babylab, and with 10 minutes or more of screen time in the hour before bed on 3 or more days a week. Exclusion criteria were (1) a genetic or neurological condition, (2) premature birth (<37 weeks), and (3) current participation in another study. INTERVENTIONS Families were randomized (1:1:1) to (1) PASTI: caregivers removed toddler screen time in the hour before bed and used activities from a bedtime box instead (eg, reading, puzzles); (2) bedtime box (BB only): used matched before-bed activities, with no mention of screen time; or (3) no intervention (NI): continued as usual. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Feasibility outcomes: participation rate, intervention adherence, retention, family experiences, and assessment acceptability. Efficacy outcomes: screen use, actigraphy-measured sleep, and eye-tracking attention measures. RESULTS A total of 427 families were screened, 164 were eligible (38.4%), and 105 families were randomized (mean [SD] age, 23.7 [4.6] months; 60 male [57%]). The trial was feasible, with 99% participant (104 of 105) retention and 94% of families (33 of 35) adhering to PASTI. PASTI showed reductions in parent-reported screen time (vs NI: Cohen d = -0.96; 95% CI, -1.32 to -0.60; vs BB only: Cohen d = -0.65; 95% CI, -1.03 to -0.27). PASTI showed small to medium improvements in objectively measured sleep efficiency (vs NI: Cohen d = 0.27; 95% CI, -0.11 to 0.66; vs BB only: Cohen d = 0.56; 95% CI, 0.17-0.96), night awakenings (vs NI: Cohen d = -0.28; 95% CI, -0.67 to 0.12; vs BB only: Cohen d = -0.31; 95% CI, -0.71 to 0.10), and reduced daytime sleep (vs NI: Cohen d = -0.30; 95% CI, -0.74 to 0.13) but no difference compared with BB only. There was no observable effect of PASTI on objective measures of attention. Compared with BB only, PASTI showed a difference on parent-reported effortful control (Cohen d = -0.40; 95% CI, -0.75 to -0.05) and inhibitory control (Cohen d = -0.48; 95% CI, -0.77 to -0.19), due to an increase in BB-only scores. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Results of this randomized clinical trial show that, supporting pediatric recommendations, removing screen time before toddler bedtime was feasible and showed modest preliminary beneficial effects on sleep. A future full confirmatory trial is needed before PASTI's adoption by parents and pediatricians.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Pescuma2024,

title = {Register and morphosyntactic congruence during sentence processing in German: An eye-tracking study},

author = {V. N. Pescuma and K. Maquate and C. R. Ronderos and A. Ito and P. Knoeferle},

doi = {10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104547},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Acta Psychologica},

volume = {251},

pages = {1–9},

publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},

abstract = {In the present study, we used eye-tracking to investigate formality-register and morphosyntactic congruence during sentence reading. While research frequently covers participants' processing of lexical, (morpho-)syntactic, or semantic knowledge (e.g., operationalized by means of violations to which we can measure responses relative to felicitous stimuli), less attention has been devoted to the full breadth of pragmatic and context-related aspects. One such aspect is sensitivity to formality-register congruence, i.e., the match or mismatch between the register of a target word and the formality conveyed by the (linguistic) context. In particular, we investigated how congruence of linguistic register with context formality, as well as its interplay with morphosyntactic knowledge, may unfold during reading and be reflected in eye movements. In our study, 40 native German speakers read context sentences conveying a formal or informal situation, and a target sentence containing a high- or low-register verb (e.g., Engl. transl. The policeman detained the activist vs. The policeman nabbed the activist) which matched or mismatched the formality of the preceding context sentences. We additionally manipulated subject-verb agreement, with either a match (see examples above) or a mismatch thereof (e.g., Engl. transl. *The policeman detain the activist; *The policeman nab the activist). We predicted that a violation of formality-register congruence would be reflected in longer reading times at the verb and post-verbal object region, as this would be in line with previous research on context violations (e.g., Lüdtke & Kaup, 2006; Reali et al., 2015; Traxler & Pickering, 1996). We found effects of morphosyntactic congruence on late processing stages at the verb and on earlier processing stages at the post-verbal object region. As far as formality-register congruence is concerned, only late (in total reading time analysis, in the post-verbal object region) and subtle effects emerged. The results suggest that, compared to morphosyntactic violations, formality-register congruence effects emerge quite subtly and slowly during reading.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Perra2024,

title = {Markers of musical expertise in a sight-reading task: An eye-tracking study},

author = {Joris Perra and Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat and Thierry Baccino and Patrick Bard and Philippe Pfister and Philippe Lalitte and Mélissa Zerbib and Véronique Drai-Zerbib},

doi = {10.1037/xlm0001358},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},

pages = {1–18},

abstract = {Classical music pianists of five different conservatory levels, from undergraduate to professional, were tested on a sight-reading task with eye-movement recording. They had to sight read both tonal classical scores that followed the rules specific to Western tonal music, and atonal contemporary scores, which do not follow these rules. This study aimed at determining the extent to which eye movements and musical performance metrics can account for the level of sight-reading expertise. First, the results indicated that with the acquisition of expertise, musicians process visual information more rapidly (increasing their played tempo while decreasing average fixation duration and their number of fixations), more structurally (tending to increase their eye–hand span), and more accurately (increasing their sight-reading accuracy). Second, when they sight read contemporary scores compared to classical scores, musicians decreased their played tempo, tended to be less accurate, increased their number of fixations, and tended to decrease their eye–hand span. Finally, expertise effects were moderated by the type of score. These results suggest (a) that visual perception is progressively shaped through music reading expertise and through domain-specific knowledge acquisition, (b) that tonal-specific cues play a significant role to use an efficient eye-movement behavior and (c) that the benefit conferred by expert prior music-specific knowledge seems to be even greater for sight-reading tonal rather than atonal scores. Our findings are discussed in the light of expert memory theories (long-term working memory theory; Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995; template theory, Gobet & Simon, 1996).},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{PellicerSanchez2024,

title = {How does lexical coverage affect the processing of L2 texts?},

author = {Ana Pellicer-Sánchez and Stuart Webb and Andi Wang},

doi = {10.1093/applin/amae062},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Applied Linguistics},

volume = {45},

number = {6},

pages = {953–972},

abstract = {Lexical coverage, i.e. the extent to which words in a text are known, is considered an important predictor of reading comprehension, with studies suggesting 98% lexical coverage leads to adequate comprehension. However, no studies to date have examined how the various lexical coverage percentages suggested in the literature are reflected by the cognitive effort involved in processing text and the attention that is devoted to the unknown vocabulary. This study used eye-tracking to examine how lexical coverage affects the processing of text (global measures) and unknown vocabulary (word-level measures), as well as the relationship between processing time on unknown vocabulary and learning. Advanced L2 learners of English read a text in one of four lexical coverage conditions (90%, 95%, 98%, 100%) while their eye movements were recorded. Knowledge of unknown pseudowords in the texts was assessed via an immediate, meaning recall post-test. Results showed that only one of the three global measures examined showed a processing advantage for the 98% condition, reflected by longer saccades and less effortful reading than the 90% and 95% conditions. Crucially, lexical coverage did not have a significant impact on the amount of attention spent on unknown vocabulary. Processing times were found to significantly predict vocabulary gains.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Parshina2024,

title = {Cross-linguistic comparison in reading sentences of uniform length: Visual-perceptual demands override readers' experience},

author = {Olga Parshina and Nina Zdorova and Victor Kuperman},

doi = {10.1177/17470218231206719},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology},

volume = {77},

number = {8},

pages = {1694–1702},

abstract = {Accurate saccadic targeting is critical for efficient reading and is driven by the sensory input under the eye-gaze. Yet whether a reader's experience with the distributional properties of their written language also influences saccadic targeting is an open debate. This study of Russian sentence reading follows Cutter et al.'s (2017) study in English and presents readers with sentences consisting of words of the same length. We hypothesised that if the readers' experience matters as per discrete control account, Russian readers would produce longer saccades and farther landing positions than the ones produced by English readers. On the contrary, if the saccadic targeting is primarily driven by the immediate perceptual demands that override readers' experience as per the dynamic adjustment account, the saccades of Russian and English readers would be of the same length, resulting in similar landing positions. The results in both Cutter et al. and the present study provided evidence for the latter account: Russian readers showed rapid and accurate adjustment of saccade lengths and landing positions to the highly constrained input. Crucially, the saccade lengths and landing positions did not differ between English and Russian readers even in the cross-linguistically length-matched stimuli.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Parker2024,

title = {Readers use recent experiences with word meanings to support the processing of lexical ambiguity: Evidence from eye movements},

author = {Adam J. Parker and J. S. H. Taylor and Jennifer M. Rodd},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition},

pages = {1–22},

abstract = {Fluent reading comprehension demands the rapid access and integration of word meanings. This can be challenging when lexically ambiguous words have less frequent meanings (e.g., the dog meaning of boxer). Indeed, readers fixate on lexically ambiguous words that are disambiguated toward their subordinate meaning for longer than matched control words embedded within identical sentence contexts. Word-meaning priming studies have shown that participants flexibly use recent experiences with ambiguous words to guide their interpretation when these words are presented in isolation, even after substantial delays. However, word-meaning priming paradigms have almost always used artificial tasks to measure word-meaning availability and we do not therefore know how priming would support lexical processing when reading for comprehension. Thus, we conducted two eye-movement experiments to examine word-meaning priming during sentence reading. Both experiments employed a 2 (ambiguity: low-ambiguity control vs. high-ambiguity) × 2 (priming: unprimed vs. primed) within-participants design, with either a 1-min delay (Experiment 1; N = 28) or a 30-min delay (Experiment 2; N = 60) between prime and test sentences. Both experiments showed greater reductions in go-past times and total reading times following priming for high-ambiguity target words than matched low-ambiguity control words, indicating that recent encounters support the processing of word meanings during sentence reading and that this effect extends beyond the simple repetition effect observed for low-ambiguity control words. This illustrates the remarkable flexibility of the human language system in using diverse input to refine stored lexical knowledge even in skilled readers.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Pan2024b,

title = {Early parafoveal semantic integration in natural reading},

author = {Yali Pan and Steven Frisson and Kara D Federmeier and Ole Jensen},

doi = {10.7554/elife.91327.4},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {eLife},

volume = {12},

pages = {1–27},

abstract = {Humans can read and comprehend text rapidly, implying that readers might process multiple words per fixation. However, the extent to which parafoveal words are previewed and integrated into the evolving sentence context remains disputed. We investigated parafoveal processing during natural reading by recording brain activity and eye movements using MEG and an eye tracker while participants silently read one-line sentences. The sentences contained an unpredictable target word that was either congruent or incongruent with the sentence context. To measure parafoveal processing, we flickered the target words at 60 Hz and measured the resulting brain responses (i.e. Rapid Invisible Frequency Tagging, RIFT ) during fixations on the pre-target words. Our results revealed a significantly weaker tagging response for target words that were incongruent with the previous context compared to congruent ones, even within 100ms of fixating the word immediately preceding the target. This reduction in the RIFT response was also found to be predictive of individual reading speed. We conclude that semantic information is not only extracted from the parafovea but can also be integrated with the previous context before the word is fixated. This early and extensive parafoveal processing supports the rapid word processing required for natural reading. Our study suggests that theoretical frameworks of natural reading should incorporate the concept of deep parafoveal processing.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Pan2024d,

title = {The perceptual span in traditional Chinese},

author = {Jinger Pan and Ming Yan},

doi = {10.1017/langcog.2023.24},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Language and Cognition},

volume = {16},

number = {1},

pages = {134–147},

abstract = {The present study aimed at examining the perceptual span, the visual field area for information extraction within a single fixation, during the reading of traditional Chinese sentences. Native traditional Chinese readers' eye-movements were recorded as they read sentences that were presented using a gaze-contingent technique, in which legible text was restricted within a window that moved in synchrony with the eyes, while characters outside the window were masked. Comparisons of the window conditions with a baseline condition in which no viewing constraint was applied showed that when the window revealed one previous character and three upcoming characters around the current fixation, reading speed and oculomotor activities reached peak performance. Compared to previous results with simplified Chinese reading, based on a similar set of materials, traditional Chinese exhibits a reduction of the perceptual span. We suggest that the visual complexity of a writing system likely influences the perceptual span during reading.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Pan2024a,

title = {Printing words in alternating colors facilitates eye movements among young and older Chinese adults},

author = {Jinger Pan and Aiping Wang and Mingsha Zhang and Yiu Kei Tsang and Ming Yan},

doi = {10.3758/s13423-024-02581-6},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Psychonomic Bulletin and Review},

pages = {1–11},

publisher = {Springer US},

abstract = {It is well known that the Chinese writing system lacks visual cues for word boundaries, such as interword spaces. However, characters must be grouped into words or phrases for understanding, and the lack of interword spaces can cause certain ambiguity. In the current study, young and older Chinese adults' eye movements were recorded during their reading of naturally unspaced sentences, where consecutive words or nonwords were printed using alternating colors. The eye movements of both the Chinese young and older adults were clearly influenced by this explicit word boundary information. Across a number of eye-movement measures, in addition to a general age-related slowdown, the results showed that both groups benefited overall from the explicit color-based word boundary and experienced interference from the nonword boundary. Moreover, the manipulations showed stronger effects among the older adults. We discuss implications for practical application.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Opitz2024,

title = {The role of linguistic factors in the retention of verbatim information in reading: An eye-tracking study on L1 and L2 German},

author = {Andreas Opitz and Denisa Bordag and Alberto Furgoni},

doi = {10.1017/S0142716424000122},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Applied Psycholinguistics},

volume = {45},

pages = {393–417},

abstract = {We investigated the retention of surface linguistic information during reading using eye-tracking. Departing from a research tradition that examines differences between meaning retention and verbatim memory, we focused on how different linguistic factors affect the retention of surface linguistic information. We examined three grammatical alternations in German that differed in involvement of changes in morpho-syntax and/or information structure, while their propositional meaning is unaffected: voice (active vs. passive), adverb positioning, different realizations of conditional clauses. Single sentences were presented and repeated, either identical or modified according to the grammatical alternation (with controlled interval between them). Results for native (N = 60) and non-native (N = 58) German participants show longer fixation durations for modified versus unmodified sentences when information structural changes are involved (voice, adverb position). In contrast, mere surface grammatical changes without a functional component (conditional clauses) did not lead to different reading behavior. Sensitivity to the manipulation was not influenced by language (L1, L2) or repetition interval. The study provides novel evidence that linguistic factors affect verbatim retention and highlights the importance of eye-tracking as a sensitive measure of implicit memory.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Olkoniemi2024,

title = {Comprehending irony in text: Evidence from scanpaths},

author = {Henri Olkoniemi and Diane Mézière and Johanna K. Kaakinen},

doi = {10.1080/0163853X.2023.2266964},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Discourse Processes},

volume = {61},

number = {1-2},

pages = {6–20},

publisher = {Routledge},

abstract = {Eyetracking studies have shown that readers reread ironic phrases when resolving their meaning. Moreover, it has been shown that the timecourse of processing ironic meaning is affected by reader's working memory capacity (WMC). Irony is a context-dependent phenomenon but using traditional eye-movement measures it is difficult to analyze processing beyond sentence-level. A promising method to study individual differences in irony processing at the paragraph-level is scanpath analysis. In the present experiment, we analyzed whether individual differences in WMC are reflected in scanpaths during reading ironic stories by combining data from two previous eye-tracking studies (N = 120). The results revealed three different reading patterns: fast-and-linear reading, selective reading, and nonselective rereading. The readers predominantly used the fast-and-linear reading pattern for ironic and literal stories. However, readers were less likely to use the nonselective rereading pattern with ironic than literal texts. The reading patterns for ironic stories were modulated by WMC. Results showed that scanpaths captured differences missed by standard measures, showing it to be a valuable tool to study individual differences in irony processing.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Nakano2024,

title = {An eye-tracking study on the effects of speaker's face on shadowing performance},

author = {Yoko Nakano and Shuhei Kadota and Mariko Kawasaki and Hiroshi Nakanishi and Naoya Hase and Osato Shiki},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Language, Education, & Technology},

volume = {61},

pages = {29–58},

abstract = {Since the influence of audiovisual materials on shadowing performance has not yet been studied well, this study compared the effects of two types of materials—auditory texts presented together with either a still or moving image of a face of a speaker who was reading the text aloud—on shadowing reproduction rates and loci of eye-gaze of learners. Twenty-four L1-Japanese learners of English (13 upper-level and 11 lower-level learners) participated in an eye-tracking experiment. In the results, the participants shadowed more accurately for moving images of a speaker's face than for still images; when the moving images were presented, the lower-proficiency level group gazed at the speaker's mouth longer than any other region, but the upper-proficiency level group gazed at the eyes and mouth equally longer than the other facial regions. The reproduction rates did not statistically differ between the eyes and mouth in the lower-proficiency group, but the upper-proficiency group exhibited better reproduction rates for the eyes compared to the mouth. On the one hand visual cues, such as movements of mouth and chin of a speaker's face, help some learners perceive auditorily presented texts, and on the other hand some learners may have difficulty in linking speech sounds and mouth movements during shadowing.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Nahatame2024,

title = {TECO: An eye-tracking corpus of Japanese L2 English learners' text reading},

author = {Shingo Nahatame and Tomoko Ogiso and Yukino Kimura and Yuji Ushiro},

doi = {10.1016/j.rmal.2024.100123},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Research Methods in Applied Linguistics},

volume = {3},

number = {2},

pages = {1–17},

publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},

abstract = {Eye-tracking corpora are invaluable resources for understanding human text processing. In recent years, some corpora have been developed that incorporate second-language (L2) English readers' eye-movement recordings. However, these face limitations such as small data sizes, the absence of multiple and longer text sources, and a scarcity of data from learners whose first languages are linguistically distinct from English. Addressing these gaps, this study introduces Tsukuba Eye-tracking Corpus (TECO), a dataset of eye-tracking records from Japanese L2 English learners engaged in text reading. TECO encompasses eye-tracking data for over 410,000 tokens, collected from 41 Japanese students who each read 30 English passages ranging in length from 300–400 words. In this article, we detail the design of TECO and report on the reliability of commonly used eye-tracking measures (e.g., skipping, first fixation duration, and regression) along with their descriptive statistics and distribution. We also validate the corpus by illustrating the impact of several lexical and reader factors (e.g., word length and reading proficiency) on some eye-tracking measures. TECO will serve as a valuable resource for researchers who are keen on exploring the cognitive processes involved in L2 reading. The corpus is freely accessible at the Open Science Framework [https://osf.io/wrvj3/], and we are committed to its continuous expansion by adding participants from diverse backgrounds and incorporating more detailed text information.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Nagarajan2024,

title = {When noise becomes signal: A study of blink rate using an eye tracker},

author = {Krishnaveni Nagarajan and Kavya Ravi and Shakthi Pradheepa Periakaruppan and Prem Nandhini Satgunam},

doi = {10.1016/j.jtos.2024.11.002},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {The Ocular Surface},

volume = {34},

pages = {516–520},

publisher = {Elsevier Inc.},

abstract = {Purpose: Although blink rate is considered important for digital eye strain and dry eye conditions, its assessment has been mostly manual. This study aimed at quantifying blink rate automatically using the Eyelink 1000 Plus eye tracker and comparing it with manual counting. Additionally, blink rate was correlated with reading eye movements and reading speed. Methods: Thirty participants (mean age 26.8 ± 3.5 years; 19 females) were enrolled. An on-screen reading task for 3 min duration, was repeated 3 times with a 2-min break between the repetitions. During this task, eye movements and blinks were measured through the Eyelink 1000 Plus eye tracker. The blink was also counted manually by the examiner in real time from a video feed. Results: The blink rate obtained by the eye tracker (median [Q1, Q3]:11.7 [6.8,15.5] blinks/min) and manual counting (11.6 [7.1, 15.4] blinks/min) were comparable (p > 0.5). No significant correlations were observed between the blink rate and any of the reading eye movement parameters except saccadic amplitude (Spearman's rho},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Moss2024a,

title = {Eye movements and reading comprehension performance: Examining the relationships among test format, working memory capacity and reading comprehension},

author = {Corrin Moss and Sharon Kwabi and Scott P. Ardoin and Katherine S. Binder},

doi = {10.1007/s11145-023-10428-0},

year  = {2024},

date = {2024-01-01},

journal = {Reading and Writing},

volume = {37},

number = {3},

pages = {703–729},

publisher = {Springer Netherlands},

abstract = {The ability to form a mental model of a text is an essential component of successful reading comprehension (RC), and purpose for reading can influence mental model construction. Participants were assigned to one of two conditions during an RC test to alter their purpose for reading: concurrent (texts and questions were presented simultaneously) and sequential (texts were presented first, then questions were shown without text access). Their eye movements were recorded during testing. Working memory capacity (WMC) and centrality of textual information were measured. Participants in the sequential condition had longer first-pass reading times compared to participants in the concurrent condition, while participants in the concurrent condition had longer total processing times per word. In addition, participants with higher WMC had longer total reading times per word. Finally, participants in the sequential condition with higher WMC had longer processing times in central regions. Even among skilled college readers, participants with lower WMC had difficulty adjusting their reading behaviors to meet the task demands such as distinguishing central and peripheral ideas. However, participants with higher WMC increased attention to important text areas. One potential explanation is that participants with higher WMC are better able to construct a coherent mental model of the text, and attending to central text areas is an essential component of mental model formation. Therefore, these results help clarify the relationship between the purpose for reading and mental model development.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}